Roselyn K. Polk 

 
Introduction 
 
Education has traditionally been viewed by society as a way for adolescents to gain self-sufficiency and acquire the knowledge and skills necessary to ensure a successful transition into adulthood. Those adolescents who fail to acquire sufficient academic skills may find themselves severely restrained in an increasingly competitive job market. Upon graduation, adolescents may expect to spend approximately 48 years as an active participant in the work force and this workforce increasingly requires both males and females to be literate, technologically sophisticated, in possession of specialized skills, as well as possessing a strong work ethic (Oakland, 1992). Those who do not obtain such prerequisite skills are likely to have access only to those jobs that are lower in status, part-time, and that offer little opportunity for advancement. Thus, there is considerable emphasis on finding ways to reduce the academic risk factors immediately relevant to adolescents.

Historically, the educational and social psychological literature has dealt with those individuals at risk for academic failure by targeting deficiencies within the adolescent as the leading reason for failure in school. Academic failure is used here as a generic term that encompasses academic risk factors such as suspension, school absences, dropping out, school transitions, expulsion, alienation, and overall grade failure.

Structural factors, the social environment, and the school environment all play an important role in academic failure. Academic failure in the form of dropping out of school has fallen principally under two categorical influences known as the "push and pull effects" (McNeal, 1997: Jordan, Lara, & McPartland, 1996). Push effects are those factors located within the school environment itself that negatively impact the adolescent and result in their rejecting schooling. Pull effects recognizes that school is only one segment of the adolescent's social arena. Other factors, such as cultural expectations, parental influences, employment, and intimate relationships may impress upon and capture the emphasis that should be directed toward schooling. The result may be a conflict between educational and social forces and a decrease in student success.

Cultural forces also can play an important role in whether adolescents succeed or fail academically. Documented gaps do exist in the academic failure rates between White and minority students and affluent and poor students. A portion of the gap is due to family and societal expectations. For example, Hispanic females may not be expected to complete an education due to an emphasis on their life role as a mother and wife (Valdivieso & Nicolau, 1994), while African-American youths may view unemployment as their fate regardless of the educational attainment achieved (Ogbu, 1990). Poor and minority adolescents may find it necessary to contribute to the family income either by working or caring for younger siblings and this may in turn impede school performance and distract them from completing or succeeding in their education (Ekstrom, Goertz, Pollack, & Rock, 1987).

 

Components likely to contribute to academic failure among adolescents:
	Boredom
	Low self-concept and inadequate social skills
	Conflict with teachers
	Nonfacilitative school and classroom environment
	Awkward or unsuccessful transitions from one school to another
	Violence and victimization
	Lack of parental involvement.
	Stress and pressures in family and peer relations
	Teacher expectancies and beliefs
	A sense of alienation and isolation
	Differing cultural and gender expectations

 
Summary 
 
In order to ensure that each adolescent has access to the best education possible there needs to be a school environment developed that is conducive to learning and that takes into account the diversity of students that come together within the school walls. Researchers must no longer look at only individual factors when studying adolescents at risk for academic failure, but must also take into consideration the environmental and socio-structural factors that contribute to failure or success. The community, parents, and researchers must realize the need for creating much smaller, student friendly middle schools that are more developmentally appropriate (Carnegie Report, 1989). Restructuring of our school curriculum to provide real life meaning, involving parents, teachers, and the community, and providing positive mentoring and tutoring can all contribute towards academic retention thereby leading to a more promising future for all adolescents.

 
References 
 
      Carnegie Council Task Force Report on Education of Young Adults (1989). Turning Points: Preparing American Youth for the 21st Century. New York: Carnegie Corporation. 

     Ekstrom. R. B., Goertz, M. E., Pollack, J. M., & Rock, D. A. (1987). Who drops out of high school and why? Findings from a national study. In G. Natriello (Ed.), School dropouts: Patterns and policies (pp. 52-69). New York: Teachers College Press. 

     McNeal Jr., R. B. (1997). Are students being pulled out of high school? The effect of adolescent employment on dropping out. Sociology of Education, 70, 206-220. 

     Oakland, T. (1992). School dropouts: Characteristics and prevention. Applied and Preventive Psychology, 1, 201-208. 

     Ogbu, J. (1990). Minority education in a comparative perspective. Journal of Negro Education, 59, 45-57. 

     Valdivieso, R., & Nicolau, S. (1994). Look me in the eye: A Hispanic cultural perspective on school reform. In R. J. Rossi (Ed.), Schools and students at risk: Context and framework for positive change (pp. 90-115). New York: Teachers College Press. 
 
 

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