Reduction of Risk Behaviors in Youth: 
 
Delinquent Behavior 
 
Bibliography 
Developmental Issues/Theories/Models 
 
Farrington, D.P. (1995).  The Twelfth Jack Tizard Memorial Lecture:  The development of offending and antisocial behavior from childhood:  Key findings from the Cambridge study in delinquent development.  Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 360, 929-964. 
 

The Cambridge study of delinquent development was described, which followed 411 boys from age 8-32.  One third of the sample were convicted of criminal offenses.  The strongest childhood predictors of delinquency were antisocial behavior, impulsivity, low IQ, poverty, and poor family management at ages 8-10, as well as having a delinquent sibling or a convicted parent.  Marriage, employment, and moving out of the city were associated with lower levels of offending.  Policy implications of the findings were discussed.

The authors outline a general theory of adolescent problem behavior, which they argue stems from poorly developed self-control. They note three well established research trends: 1) most problem behaviors tend to peak early in life, and then decline; 2) youth committing certain types of problem behaviors are much more likely to commit others; 3) and the stability of anti-social acts across the life-span.  They write, “A valid theory of adolescent problem behaviors must see them for what they are – largely petty, typically not completed, usually of little lasting or substantial benefit to the actor, always jeopardizing long-term interests for the interests of the moment” (p. 43).  They suggest that much previous research, which focuses on establishing that certain problem behaviors precede, or cause, other problems are not necessarily accurate.  They discuss certain objections to their theory, as well as discuss the implications for their theory, namely that early prevention in building self-control is the most effective way to combat problem behaviors occurring later in adolescence.

This paper explores two seemingly contradictory facts about antisocial behavior:  1) antisocial behavior seems fairly constant over the life-span, and 2) adolescents are 10 times more likely to commit anti-social actions than any other point in the life-span.  Through an extensive examination of research, it is argued that two groups of individuals are present.  The first is  “adolescent-limited” delinquents, which even though they may commit very serious offenses, do not engage in delinquent behavior before or after adolescence.  Almost all adolescents commit some kind of delinquent act; this category is not necessarily maladjusted.  The second is “life-course persistent” delinquents, which describes individuals with neuropsychological problems that interact with their environment to create a more truly anti-social personality.

This article summarizes past struggles to develop a theory capable of explaining delinquent and antisocial behavior.   Challenges to developing a developmental model were presented, focusing on the concepts of stability and change.  Those identified as having the highest risk for later antisocial behavior were temperamentally difficult infants raised by unskilled mothers.  Frequency of family transitions was found to be more predictive of later delinquent behavior than living in a single parent home.  Five family management factors have been found as reliable predictors of early onset delinquency:  discipline, monitoring, family problem solving, parent involvement, and positive reinforcement.  It was also suggested that extremely aggressive behavior in grade school  and involvement with deviant peers was predictive of delinquency.  The interactional nature of these variables was discussed, as well as intervening societal factors.

The article summarizes issues relating to delinquent activity, such as the number of juvenile delinquents, and delinquent acts committed in the USA.  It then describes a progression of entry into delinquent activity:  lack of positive social behaviors, leading to school failure and social rejection, leading to membership in a deviant peer group.  This process begins in early childhood, with actual delinquent activity beginning adolescence.  It is argued that the earlier the onset of delinquent behavior, the more likely the adolescent will become a chronic offender.  The article also discussed factors leading to poor parenting, such as the parents receiving poor parenting themselves, family demographics, and family stress.  The article stressed the need for preadolescent programs in order for effective prevention of adolescent delinquency to be achieved.

This paper combines existing theories on the etiology of delinquent behavior.  It documents current schools of thought, such as the "anomie/strain" perspective, which assumes that delinquency arises due to the breakdown of rules and authority, resulting in a state of normlessness. This perspective also implies that people turn to illegal behaviors when conventional means for achieving goals fail.  The control perspective, on the other hand, assumes that conformity to rules must be acquired, and delinquency occurs when a commitment to rules is not achieved.  A new theoretical model is offered, which integrates these and other theories and proposes several key elements:  integration and commitment, and belief in norms and laws.  Delinquency not only represents weak bonds to existing cultures, but active reinforcement of social meaning of delinquent activities.  Bonds therefore develop with deviant peer groups.  Several paths to deviance were suggested, such as the strain path:  limited means/societal failure, and an active search path, where individuals make an active search for alternate groups and experience.

Relationships between early conduct problems and academic achievement to later delinquency and school achievement were studied in a seven-year longitudinal study of New Zealand children beginning at age eight.  It was found that early conduct problems  and IQ were related to the two outcomes by two different but highly correlated developmental sequences.  Early conduct problems predicted delinquency but not school achievement, while attention deficit disorders and IQ predicted school achievement, but were not directly related to delinquency.  No gender differences were found.

 
Zingraff, M.T., Leiter, J., Johnsen, M.C., & Meyers, K.A.  (1994).  The mediating effect of good school performance on the maltreatment-delinquency relationship.  Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 31, 62-91. 
 

This study examines whether academic achievement may serve as a mediating factor between parental maltreatment and adolescent delinquency.  Using a sample of 522 adolescents with substantiated reports of abuse, as well as a control group of 256 adolescents, it was found that neglected and physically abused (but not sexually abused) children were more likely to be reported for delinquent acts.  Demonstrating at least adequate performance in school, and having few school absences, mediated the relationship between maltreatment and abuse for physically abused children, and reduced the risk for neglected children.

 
Family Interaction 

       Cashwell, C. S., Vacc, N. A.,  (1996).  Family functioning and risk 
behaviors:  Influences on adolescent delinquency.  The School Counselor, 44, 105-114. 
 

This article describes how family relationships and risk behaviors relate to self-reported delinquency among adolescents.  Self-reports and interviews of staff and teachers were used to collect the data of 111 adolescents.  Measures of family cohesion, family adaptability, family satisfaction, coercive interpersonal style, deviant peer involvement, and delinquent behavior were used.  The results showed a strong correlation between deviant peer involvement and delinquent behavior.  Family cohesion correlated with delinquent behavior and correlated negatively with deviant peer involvement.

 
       Conger, K.J., and Conger, R. D. (1994).  Differential parenting and change in sibling differences in delinquency.  Journal of Family Psychology, 8, 287-302. 
 

This study examines whether differential treatment of siblings is associated with differing levels of delinquent activity.  In a longitudinal study of 359 intact families, it was found that increased parental hostility towards one sibling predicted greater levels of reported delinquent behavior in that sibling, although child effects at Time 1 did not significantly increase later parental hostility.  Evidence supported the idea that parental hostility was an important factor in understanding changes in sibling’ differences in antisocial behavior.

       Ge, X., Best, K.M., Conger, R.D., & Simons, R.L. (1996).  Parenting behaviors and the occurrence and co-occurrence of adolescent depressive symptoms and conduct problems.  Developmental Psychology, 32, 717-731. 
 

The relationship between observed parenting behaviors and both depressive symptomology and delinquent behavior was examined in a study of 388 adolescents and their families.  Parents of adolescents with both problems scored the lowest in observed warmth and disciplinary skills, and highest in levels of hostility when the adolescents were in 7th, 8th, and 9th grades.  Parents of adolescents with one problem scored significantly higher than those with two problems, but significantly lower in warmth and discipline skills than did parents of adolescents who reported neither depression nor delinquent activity.  Observed parental warmth and discipline predicted occurrence and co-occurrence of depressive symptoms and conduct problems even after controlling for 7th grade depressive symptoms and conduct problems.

 
Henry, B., Moffitt, T., Robins, L., Earls, F., & Silva, P.  (1993).  Early family predictors of child and adolescent antisocial behavior:  Who are the mothers of delinquents?  Criminal Behavior and Mental Health, 3, 97-118. 
 

This study tested 29 maternal and familial characteristics for the purpose of identifying children who are at high risk for antisocial and delinquent outcomes.  Three groups of 11-year-old children (antisocial, other disorders, and non-disordered) were compared on family variables.  Results showed that family variables differentiated antisocial children from  non-disordered children, with lack of agreement on parental discipline when child was five, and the child having many primary caretakers during childhood among the most important predictors.

 
Larzelere, R., and Patterson, G.R. (1990).  Parental management:  mediator of the effect of socioeconomic status on early delinquency.  Criminology, 28,301-323. 
 

This longitudinal study examined the relationship between SES status and delinquency.  Despite the fact that most sociological theories predict strong and direct effects between these two constructs, the relationship is actually quite weak when self-report methods are used to study adolescents. The central question is whether parental management (expressed by discipline, and monitoring) will serve to mediate the effects of SES status on adolescent delinquency, or whether SES will have a direct effect on delinquency.  206 fourth grade boys comprised the sample, which was drawn from boys with a high involvement in criminal activity.  The interviews were intensive (23 hours annually), and 73% of the eligible families agreed to participate.  The boys were interviewed until age 13.  Delinquency was measured both by police records and self-report.  Parental monitoring (knowing where child is and what he is doing) and discipline were also examined, as well as a SES measurement.  Parental management entirely mediated the effects of SES, and accounted for 46% of the variance in delinquency prediction.

 
Weintraub, K., & Gold, M.  (1991).  Monitoring and delinquency.  Criminal Behavior and Mental Health, 1, 268-281. 
 

This article examines the relationship between parental monitoring and delinquent behavior.  The study was conducted by using data from the National Survey of Youth 1972, which consisted of 1,395 youths.  Through interviews, it was found that parental monitoring was related to lower levels of delinquent behavior, but that the strength of this relationship is diminished when factors such as age, sex, parental affection, and choice of delinquent friends were controlled for.

 
Gangs and delinquent behavior 

        Esbensen, F., Huizinga, D., & Weihur, A. (1993).  Gang and non-gang youth:  Differences in explanatory factors.  Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 9, 94-116. 
 

In a study comparing gang members, street offenders, and non-offending adolescents, it was found that gang members were more likely to live in non-family arrangements and were more likely to feel that teachers perceptions of them were negative.  Gang members did not differ significantly from non gang delinquents in a variety of psychological variables, but both groups were different from non-offenders in that they were more committed to hanging out with deviant peers and less likely to desire companionship with more conventional peers.

 
       Klien, M.W., Maxon, C.L., & Miller, J. (1995).  The Modern Gang Reader.  Roxbury Publishing:  Los Angeles, CA. 
 

This is a very useful volume of material that has been put together by prominent gang researchers and is divided into four sections:  on the nature of gangs; understanding gangs, criminal involvement of gang members; and gang programs and policies.  It contains many useful and recent articles on the theories and research issues related to gangs, as well as articles that could help community prevention and intervention programmers design, implement, and evaluate gang and delinquent programs.  It also has several good articles on policy issues related with gang activity.

 
Knox, G.W., et al. (1996).  Achieving justice and reversing the problem of gang crime and gang violence in America today:  Preliminary results o the project GANGFACT study:  A large comparative analysis of gang members in 17 states.  Chicago:  National Gang Crime Research Center. 
 

A comprehensive study of 10,000 juvenile offenders (4,000 self-reported gang members) was conducted by 28 researchers in 17 states.  Some findings indicated that gang members differ from other juvenile delinquents in that they were more violent, less deterred by stiffer sanctions, less likely to complete high school, and come from dysfunctional family environments.   This report provides an excellent overview of gang membership in America as well as ways that their behavior and attitudes differ from other juvenile delinquents.

       Thornberry, T., Krohn, M., Lizotte, A., & Chard-Wierschem, D. (1993).  The role of juvenile gangs in facilitating delinquent behavior.  Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 30, 55-87. 
 

A longitudinal study of high-risk youth (delinquent youth and gang members) in Rochester was conducted to examine the relationship between gang membership and incidence of delinquent behavior.  Becoming involved in a gang was associated with a significant increase in delinquent behavior, which did not decrease until individuals left the gang.  Both transient and stable gang members committed nearly twice the rate of offenses against persons than non-gang member delinquents.

 
Gender issues 
 
        Bjerregaard, B., & Smith, C. (1993).  Gender differences in gang participation, delinquency, and substance use.  Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 9, 329-355. 
 

This study examines gender differences in gang participation, delinquent activity, and substance use in a sample of 969 adolescents.  Results revealed more similarities than differences, as delinquency, substance use, involvement with deviant peers and sexual activities were risk factors for both sexes.  The only gender difference noted was that a low expectation of completing school was a risk factor for girls but not for boys.

 
Diaz, A., Belena, A., & Baguena, M.J. (1994).  The role of gender in juvenile delinquency:  personality and intelligence.  Personality and Individual Differences, 16, 309-314. 
 

Personality dimensions and intelligence were measured among 543 delinquents and non-delinquents from Spain.  It was found for both sexes, that delinquents scored higher in dogmatism, neuroticism, and lower in intelligence than non-delinquents.  Male delinquents did score significantly higher in dogmatism and rigidity than did female delinquents.

 
Intervention Programs 
 
        Kumpfer, K.L., Molgaard, V., Spoth, R. (1996).  The strengthening families program for the prevention of delinquency and drug use.  In R.D. Peters & R.J. McMahon (Eds.)  Preventing childhood disorders, substance abuse, and delinquency.  Thousand Oaks, CA:  Sage, 241-267. 
 

Several principles were suggested in developing promising family programs, such as being comprehensive, family focused, long term, and targeted to specific populations.  Several successful programs were described, including the Strengthening Families Program, which was specifically designed for drug-involved families, and has been modified for a number of different cultural groups.  Suggestions for implementing the program were offered.

 
McCord, J.  (1994).  Boys disruptive behavior, school adjustment, and delinquency:  The Montreal prevention experiment.  International Journal of Behavioral Development, 17, 739-752. 
 

This article examined prevention programs designed to reduce behavior problems in seven and nine year old boys, arguing this time period as opportune for intervention.  The program taught crisis management and monitoring behaviors to parents and social skills training for the young boys.  Follow up studies indicated that at age 12, boys in the treatment group were doing better in school than the control group, and were less involved in delinquent activities.

      Miller, L.  (1994).  Primary prevention of conduct disorder.  Psychiatric Quarterly, 65, 273-284. 
 

The need to address the problem of antisocial behavior through primary prevention efforts was discussed.  A prevention program for children aged two through four, having an older sibling demonstrating antisocial behaviors is presented.  The intervention lasts one year, and focuses on parental training, social skills training for children, a therapeutic play group, and encouraging parents and children to read together.

 
Mulvey, E.P., Arthur, M.W., Repucci, N.D. (1993).  The prevention and treatment of juvenile delinquency:  A review of the research.  Clinical Psychology Review, 13, 133-167. 
 

A comprehensive review of both prevention and intervention programs was presented, concentrating on definitional issues relating to delinquency as well as the need to conduct process evaluations.  Three types of programs were highlighted:  primary prevention, secondary prevention, and treatment.  It was suggested that shorter institutional periods followed up by long-term community programs may provide the optimal use of existing resources.  The need for programs to improve family interaction, modify antisocial behavior, and increase positive peer networks was highlighted.

 
Welsh, W.N., Harris, P.W., & Jenkins, P.H. (1996).  Reducing overrepresentation of minorities in juvenile justice:  Development of community-based programs in Pennsylvania.  Crime and Delinquency, 42, 76-98. 
 

In response to the overrepresentation of minorities in the juvenile court system, nine community based programs were conducted and evaluated.  An eight-step process of formative evaluation was developed and applied to each program.  Results from the evaluation suggested that programs benefit from increased emphasis on educational support, structured drug and alcohol training, and parental involvement.

 
Zigler, E., Taussig, C., & Black, K. (1992).  Early Childhood intervention:  A promising perspective for juvenile delinquency.  American Psychologist, 47, 997-1006. 
 

A brief history of efforts utilized to decrease juvenile delinquency in the United States was presented.  Efforts such as housing offending juveniles in detention centers or residential placement, as well as programs such as Scared Straight, have been usually been found to be ineffective, while early intervention efforts have had a more positive impact towards reducing juvenile delinquency.  The aims and long term outcomes of several successful early intervention programs are highlighted.

 
Peer influences 
 
       Dishion, T., Andrews, D., & Crosby, L. (1995).  Antisocial boys and their friends in early adolescence:  Relationship characteristics, quality, and interactional process.  Child Development, 66, 139-151. 
 
 

This article examines the correlation between close peer relationships and delinquent behavior.  186 boys were observed along with their close friends as they completed a peer interaction task.  Results showed that antisocial boys tended to have relationships that were lower in quality, of shorter duration, and were more likely to end in conflict than were non anti-social boys.  Coercive behavior and bossiness were also present in the friendships of antisocial boys.  Antisocial friendships were often formed between boys living in the same neighborhood, and friends met during unstructured activities.  The importance of examining context was discussed.

 

Dishion, T., Eddy, M., Haas, E.,  Li, F., & Spracklen, K.  (1997).  Friendship and violent behavior during adolescence.  Social Development, 6, 207-223. 
 

This article examined whether deviant behavior among youth friendships attributed to violence in adolescence.  Over 200 participants were observed while working through problem solving situations with a best friend. They were observed every two years for a period of six years  Results showed that communication patterns among best friends which endorsed antisocial behaviors was predictive of delinquency, and this “deviancy training” was predictive even when controlling for past antisocial behavior and family discipline practices.

 
       Dishion, T.J., Spracklen, K., Andrews, D., & Patterson, G.  (1996).  Deviancy training in male adolescent friendships.  Behavior Therapy, 27, 373-390. 
 

This study videotaped and analyzed conversations of 186 adolescent boys and their friends, examining the process of influence associated with antisocial behavior.  It was found that non-delinquent friend-pairs were more likely to respond positively to prosocial conversation and less likely to laugh at rule-breaking talk than were delinquent friend-pairs.  Laughing at rule-breaking conversation produced more conversation centered around social deviancy.

 
Hurrelmann, K.  (1990).  Parents, peers, teachers and other significant partners in adolescence.  International Journal of Adolescence and Youth, 2, 211-236. 
 

This article examines psychosocial stress and sources of social support in adolescence.  A survey was completed by 1717 German 13-16 year-olds, with an eight year longitudinal follow up conducted on 40 participants.  Results indicated that criminal activity, alcohol use, and truancy was related to perceived academic problems in the face of high familial expectations, as well as poor relations with families and peers.

 
Kleckler, D., & Waas, G.  (1993).  Perceived social support among high-stress adolescents:  The role of peers and family.  Journal of Adolescent Research, 8, 381-402. 
 

This article investigated the moderating effects of perceived family and peer social support among a group of adolescents experiencing elevated stress levels, with 505 students completing questionnaires.  Results showed that the perceived support of an adolescents’ family emerged as an important buffer against the effects of stress on delinquent behavior or depression.  High levels of peer support was related to lower levels of depression, but results were mixed for delinquency, with boys reporting high levels of both familial and peer support reporting significantly more delinquent actions.

       Osgood, D.W., Wilson, J.K., O’Malley, P.M., Bachman, J.G., & 
Johnston, L.D. (1996).  Routine activities and individual deviant behavior.   American Sociological Review, 61, 635-655. 
 

The role that routine daily activities plays in both delinquent activity, and substance use was examined in this study of 1,700 18-26 year olds, measured for a period of 10 years.  Individuals who spent more time in unstructured activities socializing with peers were more likely to also engage in criminal behavior, heavy alcohol use, as well as the use of other illegal drugs.  Age, SES, and gender differences were present in both frequency and types of routine activities engaged in, and these differences accounted for considerable variance between antisocial behavior and age, SES, and gender.

       
        Patterson, G.R. and Dishion, T.J. (1985).  Contributions of families and peers to delinquency.  Criminology, 23, 63-79. 
 

This article examines the relative importance of families and peers in the development of antisocial behavior.  It suggests that the process begins with a preadolescent breakdown in family management and continues with an adolescent identification into a deviant peer group.  Poor parental discipline and lack of social skills training were important contributors.  136 seventh and tenth grade boys (10% with a criminal record) were surveyed and interviewed.  Instruments included parental monitoring, interviewer impression or parent supervision, social and academic skills, and delinquent behavior.  LISREL analyses were performed, indicating that social skills and parental monitoring are negatively related to having deviant peers.  Academic involvement was indirectly and directly related to delinquent behavior.  Even though causation cannot be concluded, this study lends support to the idea that parental relationships influence peer group involvement.

 

       Windle, M.  (1994).  A study of friendship characteristics and problem behaviors among middle adolescents.  Child Development, 65, 1764-1777. 
 

This study examined the relationship between four components of adolescent friendship (reciprocity of relations, overt hostility, covert hostility, and self-disclosure) to problem behaviors in a sample of 1,100 Caucasian middle adolescents.  Higher levels of both overt and covert hostility, and lower levels of reciprocity of relations were associated with higher levels of delinquent activity.  Longitudinal analyses revealed that delinquent activity at Time 1 predicted changes in overt and covert hostility at Time 2.

Personality Characteristics 
 
        Cochran, J., Wood, P., & Arneklev, B.  (1994).  Is the religiosity-delinquency relationship spurious?  A test of arousal and social control theories.  Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 31, 92-123. 
 

This article describes the relationship between personal religiosity and self-reported delinquency.  The data was collected by self-report from 1,600 high school students.  Results showed that in every category of delinquency the relationship between religiosity and delinquency was not significant after arousal and social control factors were added.  Social control (operationalized as self-esteem, parental control, and school attachment) were the most useful predictors of delinquent behavior.

 

       Forgatch, M., & Stoolmiller, M.  (1994).  Emotions as contexts for adolescent delinquency.  Journal of Research on Adolescence, 4, 601-614. 
 

This study investigates a mediational model between emotional expression and delinquency in which parental supervision is hypothesized to mediate between these two variables.  One hundred families, with  single, stepfather, and biological parent families included were given interviews, questionnaires, and family interaction tasks.  Results showed that supervision of adolescent activities was influenced by SES and the father being absent.  Emotional expression did not have a direct impact on delinquency, but was mediated by parental supervision.

 

       Greening, L.  (1997).  Adolescent stealers' and nonstealers' social problem-solving skills.  Adolescence, 32, 51-55. 
 

Eleven adolescents with a history of stealing were compared to 11 adolescent nonstealers on social problem-solving skills.  The 22 males were given interviews and tests.  Social-cognitive problem-solving skills were found to relate significantly to delinquent behavior.  The results also indicated the relevance of considering specific social-cognitive deficits rather than global social problem-solving in relation to adjustment problems in adolescents.

 

        Hudley, C. A.  (1992).  Attribution for pride, anger, and guilt among incarcerated adolescents.  Criminal Justice and Behavior, 19, 189-205. 
 

The aim of this study was to explore the linkages between attributions and affect and compare the content of causal thinking among incarcerated delinquent youth and their nondelinquent peers.  The article describes two studies that attained information from 82 incarcerated youths through self-reports.  Incarcerated youth typically attributed feelings of pride to activities culturally appropriate for adults.  Females cited school success as a source of pride at twice the rate of males.

 

      Oyserman, D.  (1993).  Adolescent identity and delinquency in interpersonal context.  Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 23, 203-214. 
 

The purpose of this article is to examine the relationship between delinquent involvement and the perceived importance of a variety of other factors in identity development.  238 teens with varying levels of delinquent behavior were interviewed.  Results showed that delinquent youth were more influenced by peers in identity development than non-delinquent youth, in the absence of influence by adults.  Delinquent youth were also more likely to report not being influenced by anyone at all in identity development

       
         Rowe, D.  (1985).  Sibling interaction and self-reported delinquent behavior:  A study of 265 twin pairs.  Criminology, 23, 223-240. 
 

The purpose of this study was to investigate whether mutual attachment (i.e. time spent together in social activities) among twins decreased or increased their delinquent behavior.  530 twin respondents completed a  24 page questionnaire.  The results showed that twins' mutual attachment was not related to levels of delinquent behavior. Twins often engaged in delinquent actions together, as 61% of girls and 79% of boy twins reported engaging in at least one delinquent act together.  Both behavioral and environmental factors explained variance in mutual attachment.

 
        Salts, C., Lindholm, B., & Duncan, S.  (1995).  Predictive variables of violent behavior in adolescent males.  Youth and Society, 26, 377-399. 
 

This article examined the relationship of previously determined predictors of general delinquency to violent behavior of African-American and Caucasian males.  The surveys were completed by 3,761 students.  Results showed that similar predictors (i.e. family relationships, problem school behavior, and substance use) were found for both groups, but that the predictors accounted for more variance in the Caucasian group.  Age was a significant predictor of more serious violent behavior for Caucasians but not for African Americans.  Religiosity was also related to less violent behavior for Caucasians, but not African-Americans.

       
        Simonian, S., Tarnowski, K., & Gibbs, J.  (1990).  Social skills and antisocial conduct of delinquents.  Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 22, 17-27. 
 

This article examines the relationship between social skill deficits and antisocial behavior.  One hundred incarcerated subjects aged 15 to 18 years old were interviewed.  Results indicated that low behavioral resistance in situations of negative peer influence adversely affected the severity and frequency of antisocial responding.

       
        Tolan, P.H., & Thomas, P. (1995).  The implications of age of onset for delinquency risk II:  Longitudinal data.  Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 23, 157-181. 
 

The effects of age of onset of adolescent delinquency on both the seriousness and chronicity of later involvement was examined in a longitudinal study of 988 primarily Caucasian adolescents.  Although onset of delinquent activity before age 12 was related to higher rates of more serious activity spread over a longer period of time, the effects of age of onset were reduced after other psychosocial predictors were added into the equation.  Peer influences were more powerful predictors for males, and while the relationship between psychosocial predictors and delinquent activity for females were less clear, school and family influences appear to play a stronger role.

      
        Windle, M.  (1990). Temperament and social support in adolescence:  Interrelations with depressive symptoms and delinquent behaviors.  Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 21, 1-21. 
 

The article describes interrelations between temperament, perceived family and friend support, and depressive symptoms and delinquent activity.  A self-report instrument was used to collect the data from 975 adolescents.  Results showed that at least part of the influence of temperamental difficulty on depression and delinquency may be attributable to reduced levels of perceived family and friend support.

Racial and Ethnic Issues 

       Fridrich, A.H., & Flannery, D.J. (1995).  The effects of ethnicity and acculturation on early adolescent delinquency.  Journal of Child and Family Studies, 4, 69-87. 
 

In a study of Caucasian and Mexican-American sixth and seventh graders, the relationship between ethnicity and acculturation to parental monitoring, susceptibility to antisocial peer pressure and delinquency was examined.  Acculturated Mexican-Americans reported significantly higher delinquency than all other groups.  Recent immigrant early adolescents reported more parental monitoring than did acculturated Mexican-American.  The relationship between parental monitoring and delinquent activity was mediated by susceptibility to antisocial peer pressure for all groups.

        
        Joseph, J. (1995).  Juvenile delinquency among African Americans.  Journal of Black Studies, 25, 475-491. 
 

Several theories of juvenile delinquency were presented, and their applicability to African American populations was discussed.  In a study of African Americans between the ages of 12-17, it was found that the most powerful predictors were  attachment to school and having delinquent companions were predictors of delinquency, while SES and attachment to parents were not related to delinquency. It was suggested that paths to delinquency may vary across racial or ethnic groups.

Relationship to Substance Use 

       Adlaf, E.M., Smart, R.G., Walsh, G.W., & Ivis, F.J. (1994).  Is the association between drug use and delinquency weakening?  Addiction, 89, 1675-1681. 
 

Changes in the relationship between drug use and delinquent activity were examined among Canadian adolescents between the years 1983-1991.  Results found that although drug use and delinquent activities were still strongly correlated, trends were moving in opposite directions.  Canadian adolescents are using fewer drugs, but are committing more delinquent acts.  The correlation between the two behaviors, while still strong, has declined steadily through the years of the study.

        
        Brook, J. S., Whiteman, M., Finch, S. J., and Cohen, P.,  (1996).  Young adult drug use and delinquency:  Childhood antecedents and adolescent mediators.  American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 35, 1584-1592. 
 

The article examines predictors of young adult drug use and delinquency and the effects of drug use on delinquent behavior.  This 20-year longitudinal study interviewed 163 males and 195 females.  Results showed that childhood aggression was related to young adult drug use and female deviant behavior.  Adolescent drug use was also associated with later-life delinquency.

        
        Otero-Lopez, J., Luengo-Martin, A., Miron-Redondo, L., Carrillo-De-La-Pena, M., & Romero-Trinanes, E.  (1994).  An empirical study of the relations between drug abuse and delinquency among adolescents.  British Journal of Criminology, 34, 459-478. 
 

The purpose of this article was to explore the drug-delinquency relationship, especially whether one behavior caused the other, or whether other factors are responsible for both behaviors.  Over two thousand male students between 14 and 18 years of age completed questionnaires on delinquency and drug abuse.  Although this study was not longitudinal, the authors claimed support for the notion that one risk behavior did not cause the other, but rather peer, family, and individual factors were more predictive of both risk behaviors than either risk factor was predictive of the other.

Rural/Urban Delinquency 

         Sampson, R.J., & Laub, J.H. (1994).  Urban poverty and the family context of delinquency: A new look at structure and process in a classic study.  Child Development, 65, 523-540. 
 

In a re-analysis of Gluek’s (1950) study of 500 delinquent and 500 non-delinquent low income adolescents, it was found that harsh and inconsistent discipline, low levels of parental monitoring, and weak parent-child attachment mediated the effects of poverty and delinquent activity.  These results are argued to support the notion that poverty may reduce the capacity of families to achieve effective informal social controls with their children.

 
 

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