Introduction 

In our model of Personal and Social Adjustment Outcomes for children (Ysseldyke & Thurlow, 1993), respect for cultural and individual differences includes would include childrens’ responses to others on an individual basis,  as well as their responses to groups that may differ from them according to gender, social class, race, culture, ethnicity, or in other ways.  Other terms for behaviors and attitudes which communicate caring, respect for others, and appreciation of diversity include empathy, altruism, and prosocial behavior.  A review of the research in this area suggests that while it is common for racial, social class, and other  divisions to increase with age, it is not inevitable (Ramsey, 1995; Rotheram & Phinney, 1987).  Community-based programs for children can play a particularly important role in preventing these divisions.

Some feel that children engage in prosocial behavior mainly when they will be rewarded, but other researchers emphasize the link between empathy and prosocial behavior (Eisenberg, 1992).  While empathy does seem to play an important role in facilitating prosocial behavior, it can be difficult to measure, especially in children.  Since empathy is an emotion that we cannot directly observe, we must often infer it by observing behavior.  This is risky, since feelings do not always lead to action.  Conversely, people sometimes act positively in spite of their unsympathetic feelings.  Another problem with using empathy alone to predict respect for differences is that children tend to have more empathy for people they know over strangers, and for those they perceive as similar to them (Berndt, 1997).  Thus, having a capacity for empathy in some situations does not necessarily mean that children will treat all people fairly or respectfully. 

The foundations of caring behaviors and attitudes seem to be both emotional and cognitive.  In order to control their behavior, children need to have skills in handling their emotions, and must  learn what emotions are appropriate to express in different situations.  At the same time, emotions can influence their perceptions of situations, for better or worse (Collins & Gunnar, 1990).  The capacity to regulate emotions develops gradually through childhood.  Early attachment relationships with parents and caregivers seem to serve as a pattern for later relationships, and prepare children for empathic connections with others (Zahn-Waxler & Radke-Yarrow, 1990; Cohn, 1990).  Even infants appear to have some capacity for empathy, or responding to distress in others.  Between the ages of 1 and 3 years, children begin to show sympathetic concern and will try to comfort others (Dodge, 1984; Zahn-Waxler & Radke-Yarrow, 1990).  As children get older, empathy and positive feelings begin to promote altruistic behavior and inhibit aggressive behavior (Collins & Gunnar, 1990; Roberts & Strayer, 1996). 

Piaget emphasized the roles of cognitive development and experience in the development of moral behavior.  He felt that young children respect moral and social rules because adult authority figures tell them to do so, as they are too egocentric to fully take the perspective of others.  By  age 8, most children begin to develop a sense of mutual respect, based in part on the more equal give-and-take they experience in relationships with their peers (Berndt, 1997).  Older children also learn prosocial behavior both through imitating the adults around them, and through explicit teaching.  They are often aware of contradictory messages from society when they learn ideals of fairness and equal opportunity, but observe that some groups have more opportunities than others.  Children often welcome the chance to reflect on these contradictions.
 

Suggested Indicators

The following are some appropriate indicators of positive program outcomes for children in the area of respecting individual and cultural differences, based on the NCEO model (Ysseldyke & Thurlow, 1993), as adapted for community-based programs by the Children’s Outcome Workgroup.  The appropriateness of any given indicator for your program evaluation depends on the age of the children you serve, the setting, and the goals and activities of your particular program.  In general, it is not appropriate to measure the outcome of respect in children under the age of 6, because they have not yet developed the necessary capacities for self-control and perspective-taking. 

Indicators for children ages 6 and older:

• Percent of children who recognize and respect similarities and differences in self and others
• Percent of children who respect and show concern for others

Indicators for children in about Grade 4 and older:

• Percent of children who acknowledge cultural, racial, gender, socioeconomic status, ability, and family differences
• Percent of children who participate in making the program, school and community welcoming and inclusive of diversity

Summary

Although some of the emotional foundations of prosocial behavior lie in early family relationships, it is important for children to have opportunities to learn and practice caring, prosocial behaviors through various community-based programs, and to experience nurturing relationships outside of the family context.  Because of the difficulty of inferring emotional and motivational states such as empathy, there are few standardized measures of these aspects of caring behavior.  Some researchers advocate using behavioral rating scales in assessing prosocial or cooperative behaviors in classroom settings (Gresham & Elliott, 1984).

Parents and teachers may help in this process by pointing out the impact of the child's behavior on others in group or family situations (Dodge, 1984).  Adults can promote general caring, prosocial, and respectful behavior in children in several ways: 1) stating the rules clearly and forcefully (“No name-calling is allowed here”); 2) explaining how the child’s behavior affects others (“Hannah’s feelings are hurt when you push her away--she’s crying”); 3) modeling warmth and empathy in their responses to the child’s distress, and 4) valuing moral attitudes and behaviors such as respect and empathy over competing values such as competition (Berndt, 1997).  Adults in group settings can encourage respect across cultural, ethnic, gender, or social class lines by providing information about cultures, and conveying interest and respect for uniqueness and difference.  Providing cooperative activities that require children of different backgrounds to work together toward common goals can also be a powerful way to foster interpersonal bonds and counteract stereotypes (Ramsey, 1995). 

References

 Berndt, T. J. (1997).  Child development (2nd ed.).  Madison, WI: Brown & Benchmark Publishers.

 Cohn, D. A. (1990). Child-mother attachment of six-year-olds and social competence at school. Child Development, 61(1), 152-162.

 Collins, W. A., & Gunnar, M. R. (1990). Social and personality development. Annual Review of Psychology, 41, 387-416.

 Dodge, M. K. (1984). Learning to care: Developing prosocial behavior among one and two year olds in group settings. Journal of Research and Development in Education, 17(2).

 Eisenberg, N. (1992).  The caring child.  Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

 Gresham, F. M., & Elliot, S. N. (1984). Assessment and classification of children's social skills: A review of methods and issues. School Psychology Review, 13(3), 292-301.

 Rotheram, M. J., & Phinney, J. (Eds.) (1987).  Children’s ethnic socialization: Pluralism and development.  Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

 Ramsey, P. G. (1995).  Growing up with the contradictions of race and class.  Young Children, 50 ( 6), 18-22.

 Roberts, W., & Strayer, J. (1996). Empathy, emotional expressiveness, and prosocial behavior. Child Development, 67(2), 449-470.

 Ysseldyke, J. E., & Thurlow, M. (1993, October). Developing a model of educational outcomes (NCEO Report No. 1). Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota, College of Education, National Center on Educational Outcomes.
 
 

MEASURES: Respecting Cultural and Individual Differences

The following standardized assessments are provided as examples of measures that may be useful for evaluation of community-based programs.  This listing is not comprehensive, and is not intended as an endorsement of any particular measure.  Some of the assessment instruments that follow are copyrighted, and require specific levels of training to administer.  Prices of commercially-available measures may be subject to change.  While subscales that appear most relevant for this outcome area are highlighted, evaluators who are considering any standardized instrument will want to individually review the items on each measure and subscale to ensure that they are appropriate for a particular program. 

It is also important to recognize that standardized measures, such as the ones listed below, are not the only appropriate ways to assess social development outcomes for children.  In fact, it is highly recommended that standardized measures be used in conduction with other methods, including qualitative assessments, and other indicators which may be obtainable from existing records [see other sections of the CYFAR Evaluation website for more information on qualitative methods, including Using Existing Data and Qualitative Interviewing]. 
 

1.  Empathy   Brenda K. Bryant
Date:   1982

Subtests:   

Empathy in Children

Bryant, B. K. (1982).  An index of empathy for children and adolescents.  Child Development, 53 (2), 413-425.

Target Audience:  

Grades 1-8

Assesses empathy in school-aged children.  Children respond to 22 yes-or-no items.  Psychometric studies described in the Bryant (1982) article in Child Development report satisfactory test-retest reliability and construct validity.

2.  Social Skills Rating System (SSRS)  F. M. Gresham & S. N. Elliot
Date:   1990

Subtests: 

Three scales are Social Skills (with five positive  behavior subscales of Cooperation, Assertion, Responsibility, Empathy, and Self-Control), Problem Behaviors (Externalizing Problems, Internalizing Problems, and Hyperactivity subscales), and  Academic  Competence  (teacher ratings of reading, math performance, general cognitive functioning, motivation, and parental support). 

American Guidance Service (AGS)
4201 Woodland Road
P.O. Box 99
Circle Pines, MN 55014-1796
Phone: 1-800-328-2560

Starter sets, with a manual and enough forms for 10 students, cost about $97.95 for the Preschool/Elementary Level (check with AGS for current prices).  Additional forms approximately 60-65 cents apiece. 

Children ages 3-18.  Two versions address three developmental levels: Preschool/Elementary, and Secondary.  Self-report forms apply to Grades 3-12.

Rates social behaviors believed to affect areas such as teacher-student relationships, peer acceptance, and academic performance.  Behaviors are rated according to perceived frequency and importance.  An advantage is that several raters (teachers, parents and children if in Grade 3 or higher) can provide a rounded picture of behavior.  Administration takes about 10-25 minutes per questionnaire and computer software is available in several formats for scoring and reporting.  Standardized on national sample of over 4,000.  Separate norms are provided for boys and girls, and for students with disabilities.  Designed for classroom use, but evaluators and staff report that most items seem suitable for community-based programs.  The SSRS should be administered by individuals with graduate training in testing and measurement, and AGS will request information on user qualifications when the order is placed.  The SSRS uses teacher, parent, and self-report student questionnaires, with the three perspectives combined on one form.  When there are concerns about adult literacy levels in a setting, evaluators and staff sometimes administer parent questionnaires orally.  

Personal and Social Adjustment	Bibliography
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