Program Outcomes for Youth

Social Competencies

Social Responsibility

Bibliography
Theories and Theoretical Perspectives

Bandura, A., Barbaranelli, C., Caprara, G. V., & Pastorelli, C. (1996). Mechanisms of moral disengagement in the exercise of moral agency. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71(2), 364-374.

Examined are the roles of the mechanism of moral disengagement in the exercise of moral agency. The researchers study the linkage of moral acts to worthy purposes, obscuring personal causal agency by displacement and diffusion of responsibility, misrepresenting or disregarding harm inflicted on others, and the vilification of recipients of harm by blaming and dehumanizing them. Also investigated are linkages to detrimental conduct.

Berman, S. (1997). Social Consciousness and the Development of Social Responsibility. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.

This book draws on the literature of moral development, citizenship education, political socialization, prosocial development, and psychosocial development in attempting to understand and provide a new theoretical framework for the development of social responsibility and social consciousness in adolescents. The theoretical framework discussed uses social consciousness and social responsibility as its central organizational theme. The author argues that the concept of social responsibility is actually a reconceptualization and expansion of work previously done in citizenship education. In contrast to citizenship education which focuses on the broader issues of individual liberty, justice, tolerance, equality, and responsibility, social responsibility focuses on the nature of the adolescents' relationship with others, as well as the larger social and political world. The concept of social responsibility presented is developed as having a several dimensions. These include the recognition that the individual is rooted within a larger social network, that relationships are framed by the ethical considerations of justice and care, one acts with integrity, and that social responsibility involves active participation. In addition to detailed chapters on the development of social responsibility, consciousness and activism, and the processes that promote development, there are three chapters detailing educational interventions, policy and practice, and the teaching of social responsibility. Included in the appendix is The Model District-Wide Curriculum Assessment used by the Educators for Social Responsibility (ESR) and 12 suburban Boston school districts in their 1989 project, Educating for Living in a Nuclear Age (ELNA).

Berman, S., & La Farge, P. (1993). Promising Practices in Teaching Social Responsibility. New York: State University of New York Press.

This book was developed by Educators for Social Responsibility as part of the Educating for Living in the Nuclear Age Project. The fifteen chapters represent the work of a group of teachers devoted to preparing adolescents to be responsible citizens by using informed, participatory methods of teaching. The argument is set forth that the lack of emphasis on social responsibility has come from a mistaken assumption that by focusing on individual self-realization, the schools will turn out good citizens. In order for adolescents' to learn social responsibility, adults must invest time, attention, and intention in a culture and school environments that promote and reinforce self-esteem, creates empowerment, cooperation, compassion, and respect. The teachers represented in this book vary widely in the grades and subject areas they teach, as well as they types of communities they live in. Each has their own approach and their own point of entry with their own unique emphasis. Among the chapter subjects are cooperative learning, literature in the classroom, educating for a multicultural perspective, conflict resolution, teaching science, math, and art in conjunction with social responsibility, and teaching for participation in the community. Included are short bibliographies of the contributors and their respective schools.

Hartup, W. W., & van Lieshout, C. F. (1995). Personality development in social context. Annual Review of Psychology, 46, p. 655-687.

This article contains a review of the current literature on the social context of personality development. The developmental pathways of antisocial behavior, social inhibition, and social responsibility are examined.

Youniss, J. & Yates, M. (1997). Community Service and Social Responsibility. University of Chicago Press: Chicago.

The authors' theory of community service is based heavily on Erikson's identity theory. In identity development, the authors argue the definition implies agency, i.e., a sense one can make a difference in society, and social responsibility or a concern for society's well being. Theory that youth participation in solving social problems has potential to promote development of personal and collective identity. The study describes a theory of how service stimulates political-moral agency and social responsibility. The study was yearlong and school-based in a predominately Black middle-class community. It is not a statistical study with quantitative measures, sampling procedures, or multi group comparative designs. Rather it is qualitative based data generated to reflect students understanding of service, self, and society. Among the book chapter topics are a theoretical framework for service, forming a political habit, getting to know the homeless, on being a Black American, and ideas for designing and implementing community service programs.

Social Responsibility and Academic Performance


Wentzel, K. R. (1991). Relations between social competence and academic achievement in early adolescence. Child Development, 62(5), 1066-1078.

This study examines relations between academic performance and 3 aspects of social competence: social responsibility, peer relations, and self-regulatory processes. Participants were 423 6th and 7th grade male and female students from a predominately working class, Midwestern community. Academic achievement was indexed by the student grade point average. When accounting for participants' grades, IQ, sex, ethnicity, school absence, and family structure, socially responsible behavior was found to mediate relations between grades and social competence in peer relations and self-regulatory processes. The author argues that the results suggest that socially responsible behavior is critical classroom social competence as well as an important indicator of academic performance in early adolescence.

Social Responsibility and Development Issues


Ford, M. E., Wentzel, K. R., Wood, D., Stevens, E., & Siesfeld, G. A. (1989). Processes associated with integrative social competence: Emotional and contextual influences on adolescent social responsibility. Journal of Adolescent Research, 4(4), 405-425.

The authors analyzed the responses of 218 adolescents of their self-reported predicted behavioral choices and anticipated emotional responses in situations involving a conflict between a socially responsible behavior and a socially irresponsible course of action. It was found that males, as opposed to females, made fewer responsible choices. Socially responsible choices were found to be associated with guilt, fear, pride, and empathy, but not with the anticipation of strong self-interest emotions or worry about peer approval. The authors suggest that integrative social competence, as embodied by the culturally desired outcome of social responsibility, may be somewhat removed from the traditional emphasis in the literature on social understanding and social inferencing capabilities. Suggestions for future research include the need to examine the processes that govern the resolution in real-life situations of social responsibility conflicts, the need to consider a broader range of process variables, and an exploration of whether the same processes regulate the behavior of different individuals.

Greenberger, E. (1984). Defining psychosocial maturity in adolescence. Advances in Child Behavioral Analysis and Therapy, 3, 1-37.

The author discusses the minimum level of autonomy and social responsibility expected by society of those individuals who have completed adolescence. Attributes of social responsibility include social commitment, tolerance of individual and cultural differences, and openness to sociopolitical change. In looking at previous research, the author found that autonomy was positively associated with better family relations and a higher level of involvement in school. In addition, there is a strong association between academic achievement and social responsibility. The findings suggest however, that family involvement does not predict attitudes toward social responsibility.

Social Responsibility and Employment

Kablaoui, B. N., & Pautler, A. J. (1991). The effects of part-time work experience on high school students. Journal of Career Development, 17(3), 195-211.

This article discusses the relationship between adolescent employment and academic achievement of high school students. Data for the investigation was obtained from microfiche, journal articles, dissertations, and published books covering a 10-year span. The authors report the negative effect of employment has been found in the areas of grades, homework, extracurricular activities, behavior, and academic relationships. Positive effects of employment have been found with respect to increased personal responsibility and earning power, the development of social skills, improved grades, participation in school-related activities, lower unemployment, and better jobs after graduation.

Keith, J. G., Nelson, C. S., Schlabach, J. H., & Thompson, C. J. (1990). The relationship between parental employment and three measures of early adolescent responsibility: Family-related, personal, and social. Special issue: Parent work and early adolescent development. Journal of Early Adolescence, 10(3), 399-415.

This study examines the relationship between changing parental employment patterns and the development of responsibility in 174 adolescents ages 10-14. Parental employment status and gender of child were not found to be related to personal responsibility. However, gender effects were significant for family responsibility in both boys and girls who assumed traditional male and female roles. Those adolescents from 2 parent homes, in contrast to those from single-parent homes, participated in more socially responsible volunteer activities, with girls found to participate more than did boys.

Kourany, R. F., & LaBarbera, J. D. (1986). Baby-sitting: A milestone in early adolescence. Journal of Early Adolescence, 6(2), 197-200.

These authors argue that babysitting should be viewed as an experience that provides adolescents with valuable opportunities to practice adult role behavior. Findings suggest that the adolescent's involved in the study benefited in the form of independence from adult supervision and financial responsibility.

Social Responsibility and Health

LeCoq, L. L., & Capuzzi, D. (1984). Preventing adolescent drug abuse. Humanistic Education and Development. 155-169.

Presented is a group-counseling model designed to assist adolescents in the identity and modification of personal coping behaviors, communication, personal relationship skills, and taking responsibility for personal decisions, choices, and behaviors. The program is specifically aimed at helping adolescents develop belief and attitude structures and decision-making and coping skills. Seven sessions are outlined and include specific goals to achieve during each session. Goals in session one includes expressing structure, rules, and processes of the group, and become acquainted with the members of the group. Session two works on identifying coping behaviors by developing awareness of feelings, thoughts, and recognition of personal coping behaviors through the use of internal perceptions. Session three is designed to establish specific behaviors change goals. This session includes both small group and large group activities. Session four reinforces the concepts of personal responsibility as opposed to blaming others, the concept of controlling ones behavior as opposed to yielding that power to another, and the recognition of self talk as a behavior shaper. Session five reinforces the concept of personal responsibility for controlling behavior and explores coping strategies when receiving attributions of blame. Communication skills designed to assist the adolescent in developing better interpersonal relationships are the focus of session six. Session six and seven deal with fostering positive self-concept and group termination.

Social Responsibility and Human Rights

Avery, P. (1988). Adolescents, civic tolerance, and human rights. Social Education, 534-537.

Discussed are challenges to the assumption of previous research regarding civic tolerance among adolescents. The author investigates the extent that adolescents are willing, as socially responsible individuals, to extend basic human rights to groups for which they have the greatest dislike. The sample included a stratified sample of 518 9th and 11th grade students. Three tentative conclusions are suggested: 1) willingness to extend basic human rights have a highly contextual factor and are dependent on the particular rights involved; 2) there was more willingness to recognize the rights of the accused and the least amount of willingness to extend the rights of expression; and 3) although the formal rights of the U.S. Constitution were recognized by the students, this recognition did not appear to be a prerequisite to the students' willingness to extend particular rights.

Schaefer, L. (1995). Reinventing civility. The NAMTA Journal, 20(1), 139-147.

The author discusses civility not just in terms of good manners, but with respect to responsible behavior in the adolescents' role as a citizen of their community. The concept of civility is argued to provide a solid foundation for the adolescent's quest to assume a position of full participation and responsibility in the community.

Social Responsibility and Peer Relations

Jarvinen, D. W., & Nicholls, J. G. (1996). Adolescents' social goals, beliefs about the causes of social success, and satisfaction in peer relations. Developmental Psychology, 32(3), 435-441.

These authors investigate several goals and beliefs viewed as connections between goals and beliefs about behaviors or circumstances, i.e., being sincere, being responsible, having status, and pretending to care, that lead to successful peer relationships. Participants were 266 high school freshman from a predominately White, middle-class community who attended a Midwestern county high school. Students were measured using a Social Goal Questionnaire designed to assess preferences for types of peer interaction and a Social Satisfaction Questionnaire. The latter questionnaire was a modified version of Asher, Hymel, and Renshaw's (1984) Loneliness and Social Dissatisfaction Questionnaire and measured subjective satisfaction in peer relationships. Support was found for the prediction of a meaningful connection between sets of goals and beliefs.

Social Responsibility and Resiliency

Wise, K. L., Bundy, K. A., Bundy, E. A., & Wise, L. A. (1991). Social skills training for young adolescents. Adolescence, 26(101), 233-241.

The focus of this article is on peer interactions and social responsibility. A systematic assertiveness training program for adolescents was developed based on Bandura's social cognitive theory. The goal of the researchers was to develop a program for public education that was easily administered and adaptable to scheduling needs. Participants were 42 6th grade students in two classes in a middle school. One class received assertiveness training while the other served as the control. The pretest, posttest, and follow-up consisted of 26 questions. Pretest and follow-up questions were identical. The posttest was matched with these tests for content and difficulty level. Trained students performed better than the control group on the posttest and on the 6-month follow-up. The assertiveness training aspect of the program emphasizes socially acceptable ways of self-expression and is viewed as appropriate training at the beginning stage of adolescence of development.

Social Responsibility and Adolescent Sex

Blau, G. M., & Gullotta, T. P. (1993). Promoting sexual responsibility in adolescence. In Adolescent Sexuality. Advances in Adolescent Development, Vol. 5. T. P. Gullotta, G. R. Adams, and R Montemayor (Eds.). 181-203. Sage Publications: Newbury Park, CA.

Reviewed are a variety of adolescent pregnancy intervention programs which are divided into categories of education, promotion of social competency, community organization/systems intervention, and natural caregiving. It is argued that reluctance on the part of society to confront the moral issue of teenage pregnancy has created a fragmented system of preventive efforts with no unifying or cohesive framework. Compounding this they contend is a large and diverse body of literature that confused the real issues. Together these factors work against the creation of socially responsible behavior on the part of adolescents who are entering into active sexual behavior.

Social Responsibility and Volunteerism


Fendrich, J. M. (1993). Ideal Citizens: The Legacy of the Civil Rights Movement. New York: State University of New York Press.

This book focuses on the long-range consequences of intense, youthful, political experiences that occurred among those adolescents who were active during the civil rights movement of the 1960's. In particular the author's research was designed to determine what became of the 1960's civil rights protestors, what kinds of citizens have they become, and how have their careers developed. Results indicate that those who were activists in the 1960's are currently fully exercising their citizenship rights and are more active politically than other members of their generation. The appendix details an extensive set of tables representing the independent and dependent variables used in the study. Details of the long-range effects of the movement are presented.

Hamilton, S. F., & Fenzel, L. M. (1988). The impact of volunteer experience on adolescent social development: Evidence of program effects. Journal of Adolescent Research, 3(1), 65-80.

Two groups of 11-17 year olds were assigned to either childcare or community service volunteer projects. Participants showed significant gains when scored on the Social Responsibility subscale with girls showing greater gains than boys.The participants cited improvement in their knowledge of themselves and others, as well as the acquisition of new skills.

Hanks, M. (1981). Youth, voluntary associations and political socialization. Social Forces, 60(1), 211-223.

Investigated is a model designed to estimate the effects of adolescent participation in voluntary associations on early adult political activity. Specifically explored were the possibility that youthful involvement in organizations may contribute to the process of socialization to citizenship and the significance of the type of organization. Data from the "National Longitudinal Study (NLS) of the High School Class of 1972 was analyzed. This data was collected from a representative sample of high school seniors enrolled in some 1,200 public, private, and church schools within the United States. Results indicate that adolescent participation in volunteer organizations increased selective forms of political expression such as the discussion of issues, campaign participation, and voting rates two years later.

Holloway, W. B. (1982). Developing competence. Society, 9(6), 40-47.

This author argues that American society offers few outlets for experimenting with adult roles and the difficulties in implementing youth-participation strategies in adult run organizations. Most projects offer little opportunity for youth to participate in planning and management. In order to develop social responsibility there is a need for the adolescent to have the opportunity to practice adult roles. It is argued that participation in organizations should provide an adolescent with this opportunity but in reality seldom does. One explanation offered is that adolescent capability in making decisions and managing their affairs alone is threatening to the employment/training bureaucracy. As many adult jobs depend on youth being totally incapability in these areas, a program suggesting that youth should be allowed to manage their own affairs on a limited degree results in a defensive reaction from the adult bureaucracy.

Middleton, E. B., & Kelly, K. R. (1996). Effects of community service on adolescent personality development. Counseling and Values, 40, 132-143.

This study uses both quantitative and qualitative analyses to evaluate the effects of participation in community service activities on personality development in high school students. The qualitative analysis provided support for community service producing strong positive effects in the participants, whereas quantitative analysis produced only limited evidence for positive change. Two possible explanations for the discrepancy between the qualitative and quantitative results are discussed: it may be that while participation provided growth on several dimensions for the adolescents, the length, intensity, and depth of participation may have been insufficient to produce changes reflected in stable, enduring personality characteristics.


Measures

Bibliographies


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