Program
Outcomes for Parents & Families
Parents
Nurture
Bibliography
Benard,
B. (1993). Fostering resiliency in kids. Educational Leadership, 51(3):
44-48.
|
Abstract: The author calls
for an examination of the personal characteristics and the conditions
that facilitate healthy development among children. Four attributes
of resilient children are discussed: social competence, problem solving
skills, autonomy, and a sense of purpose and future. The importance
of a caring environment which provides support, positive expectations,
and ongoing opportunities for participation is also stressed. The
article focuses on the role of the school and the teacher in providing
nurturing environments for children that foster resiliency. |
Blyth,
Dale A.; & Eugene C. Roehlkepartain. (1993). Healthy Communities, Healthy
Youth. Minneapolis, MN: Search Institute.
|
Abstract: Specialized focus
within Search Institute's study on community factors which promote
resiliency. |
Bobele,
M. (1989). A comparison of beliefs about healthy family functioning Family
Therapy, 16(1): 21-31.
|
Abstract: This study compares
the responses of clinical and nonclinical families to a questionnaire
measuring perceptions of healthy family functioning. The responses
of these two groups are also compared to responses obtained in three
previous studies of families, clergy, and therapists to the same questionnaire.
The questionnaire used was developed by Fisher (Fisher and Sprenkle,
1980) and contained 34 statements whose importance to healthy family
functioning can be rated on a 1-5 Likert scale. The 34 items in the
questionnaire are clustered according to three dimensions: communication,
cohesion, and unity. The sample in the present study consisted of
two groups of families clinical and nonclinical. The clinical sample
consisted of 108 persons from families who were currently in counseling
and was predominantly Hispanic (73%). The nonclinical sample consisted
of 140 family members who were not currently in therapy and was predominantly
Anglo (76%). English and Spanish versions of the questionnaire were
used. The responses of the clinical and nonclinical families were
compared to each other as well as to the responses of families, clergy,
and therapists obtained in previous studies to determine which groups
were highly similar or less similar in their rankings of the items
in the questionnaire. The results revealed that family members from
clinical and non clinical families were similar in their perceptions
of healthy family functioning, placing more value on cohesion and
family unity. Clergy were similar to the families in their responses.
In contrast, correlation of the responses of therapists with the responses
of clergy and both groups of families was low. Therapists placed more
value on adaptability and individuality. |
Bogenschneider,
Karen; Small, Stephen; & Riley, David. (1993). An ecological, risk-focused
approach for addressing youth-at-risk. Chevy Chase, MD: National 4-H Center.
|
Abstract: Summary of Werner
and Smith (1993) and other research around impacting risk and protective
factors, with applications to Extension programming. |
Bogenschneider,
K. (1996). An ecological/risk protective theory for building prevention
programs, policies, and community capacity to support youth. Family Relations,
45, 127-138
|
Abstract: The author discusses
both the risk factor and protective factor approaches to human development
and points out the limitations of each. The argument is made that
integrating these two perspectives into an ecological risk/protective
theoretical model would better address the complexity of youth development.
Twelve principles of an ecological risk/protective factor model are
presented for use in the development of programs, policies and community
resources that would support healthy development among youth and families.
A case study of a Wisconsin program utilizing an ecological risk/protective
factor approach is discussed. |
Bond,
Lynne A.; & Barry M. Wagner, (1988). Families in transition. Newbury
Park, CA: Sage.
|
Abstract: Presents a variety
of research and theory-based prevention strategies, program types,
target audiences, evaluations. |
Boss,
P. (1980). Normative family stress: Boundary changes across the life span.
Family Relations, 29, 445-450.
|
Abstract: A family's boundaries
are determined by its members perceptions of who is inside or outside
the family system and is significantly related to the relationships
within the family as well as the family's relationship with the outside
world. The author proposes that ambiguous family boundaries may lead
to family dysfunction. Stress in the form of family membership changes
resulting from marriage, birth, death, or adolescents leaving home
may be accommodated by the family through a shifting of the family
members' usual roles. The allocation of family resources to accommodate
stressful family changes will maintain family system boundaries and
facilitate healthy family functioning. A family's boundaries should
allow for and adapt to change if it is to successfully cope with normative
stress. |
Bowen,
G. L. and Chapman, M.V. (1996). Poverty, neighborhood danger, social support,
and individual adaptation among at-risk youth in urban areas. Journal of
Family Issues, 17(5): 641-666.
|
Abstract: This article examines
the lives of adolescents living in two urban areas in the United States
from an ecological perspective focusing on poverty, neighborhood danger,
and social support and their relationship to individual adaptation.
The data analyzed for this study were obtained from 207 students aged
10-20 years old who responded to the School Success Profile (SSP).
The SSP provides information on social environment and individual
adaptation. Individual adaptation was assessed by 3 measures: a) physical
health, b) psy chological well-being, and 3) adjustment. Social support
included neighborhood support, teacher support, parent support, and
friend support. Neighborhood danger was assessed by objective and
subjective measures. Results from the data analysis revealed that
adolescents from low socioeconomic households reported more objective
and subjective danger in their neighborhoods. In addition, physical
health was associated with less objective neighborhood danger. Social
support from parents consistently emerged as a significant predictor
of all measures of individual adaptation and social support from neighbors
and teachers were significant predictors of psychological well-being. |
Bowman,
T.W. (1983). Promoting family wellness: Implications and issues In D. R.
Mace (Ed.), Prevention in Family Services: Approaches to Family Wellness.
Sage: Beverly Hills, CA.
|
Abstract: This article is
divided into three sections. In the first section, a rationale for
family wellness is provided. The family as a vital component in the
process of human development is discussed and the importance of discovering
a family's potential and power is stressed. The second section consists
of the results from several different studies on family wellness.
In this section, the indicators found in each study to be characteristic
of strong families are listed. The third section concerns some implications
and issues arising from the growing body of information about factors
that promote family wellness. In this section, the use of family wellness
knowledge to strengthen families is discussed. |
Boyum,
L. A. and Parke, R. D. (1995) Title: The role of family emotional expressiveness
in the development of children's social competence. Journal of Marriage
and the Family, 57, 593-608.
|
Abstract: This study examined
the relationship between emotional expression within a family and
children's social competence with school peers. Fifty kindergarten
children and their two parent families participated in the study.
Sociometric ratings and teacher ratings were obtained to assess children's
social competence. Measures of family emotional expressiveness were
obtained by videotaping the children and their families at home during
dinner and parent com pletion of a revised version of the Family Expressiveness
Questionnaire which was designed to gather information about the frequency,
intensity and clarity of the parents' emotional expressiveness. The
videotapes were coded dyadically focusing on the affect exchanged
in parent-parent and parent-child dyads. The authors found that parent
reports of expressiveness and observed parental affect were meaningful
predictors of children's sociometric ratings. In addition, specific
parental affects were found to have differing effects on boys and
girls. |
Broderick,
Carlfried. (1993). Understanding family processes. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
|
Abstract: Presents a thorough
integration of family dynamics research. |
Brown,
B. V. (1994). Indicators of children's well-being: A review of current indicators
based on data from the Federal Statistical System. Washington, DC: Child
Trends.
|
Abstract: This paper familiarizes
the reader with the numerous indicators of children's well-being currently
in use which are based on federal data. The indicators reviewed were
taken from existing government and private publications that feature
descriptive measures of children's well-being. As such, they do not
exhaust all of the important measures of child well-being that are
available from the vast federal statistical system, nor do they tap
the range of measures that could be created. In the text itself, the
following items are discussed for five topic areas (health; education;
economic security; population, family and neighborhood; and social
development and problem behaviors): the major data sources from which
most of the indicators are constructed; a brief description of the
indicators themselves; and a brief discussion of any obvious limitations
of the existing set of indicators in each area. |
Burchyski,
Melody M. (1995). Development of a quantitative evaluation system for an
ecologically based problem solving parent education curriculum. Master's
Practicum, Nova Southeastern University. ERIC Document Reproduction Service
No ED387731.
|
Abstract: The "Discipline
That Doesn't Hurt " parent education curriculum has been taught
by approximately 100 trained volunteers to nearly 3,000 parents over
the past 4 years. Three different evaluation forms have been created
and used, yet none of these instruments have shown whether parents
who have completed the series are better able to analyze the root
cause of behavior conflicts. This quantitative evaluation form presents
parent participants with behavior conflict scenarios and asks them
to choose the response they would most likely use. An Evaluation Report
form is included to share the results with the volunteer trainers.
A pre-test and post-test are now a regular part of the series of classes
presented in the curriculum. Following completion of both the pre-test
and post-test by a class, each test is scored and the results are
shared with the volunteer trainer on the Evaluation Report form. Through
analysis of specific questions on the form, the trainers can become
aware of areas of the curriculum needing more emphasis. The curriculum,
with the newly developed evaluation system, is being marketed to County
Extension offices and parent education programs nationwide. Appendices
include the pre-test, the post-test, and the evaluation report form. |
Casas,
C.C., Stinnett, N., Williams, R.C., Defrain, J., and Lee, P.A. (1984). Identifying
family strengths in Latin American families. Family Perspective, 18, 11-17.
|
Abstract: Respondents from
nine Latin American countries who considered their families to be
strong answered the Family Strengths Inventory, an instrument designed
to measure factors contributing to healthy family functioning. The
six most frequently mentioned factors were 1) love and affection,
2) family togetherness, 3) understanding and acceptance, 4) mutual
respect and appreciation, 5) communication/relationship skills, and
6) religion. A majority of the respondents also indicated high marital
satisfaction, high parent-child relationship satisfaction, high self-esteem
within the family, and frequent contact with extended family. |
Cowan,
C.P. and Cowan P.A. (1995). Interventions to ease the transition to parenthood:
Why they are needed and what they can do. Family Relations, 44(4): 412-423.
|
Abstract: The authors present
evidence from longitudinal studies of several changes that often accompany
the transition to parenthood with a focus on individual adaptation
to parenthood and changes in the marital relationship. The finding
that marital satisfaction declines after the birth of a first child
is discussed and the connection between parents' adaptation and parental
quality is stressed. These research findings are used as justification
for more early intervention programs that would target the domains
were problems are most likely to occur. The authors provide several
examples of intervention programs for both low-risk and high-risk
families discussing their strengths as well as their weaknesses. |
Dugan,
T. (1989). Action and acting out: Variables in the development of resiliency
in adolescence. In D.F. Dugan & R. Coles (Eds.), The child in our times:
Studies in the development of resiliency. Brunner/Mazel: NY
|
Abstract: The author presents
the position that acting out behavior in adolescence is an indicator
of resilience that demonstrates the "adaptive capacity of being
able to act in relationship to others". The case of an 18 year-old
depressed male is presented and used throughout the chapter to illustrate
the concepts discussed. A review of the literature on protective factors
that promote successful adaptation is provided. Different viewpoints
on the origin and definition of acting out behavior are described,
many of which are influenced by psychoanalytic thought. The concept
of distance or disengagement is presented as a point of convergence
between the literature on acting out and the literature on resiliency. |
Emshoff,
J., Avery, E., Raduka, G., Anderson, D. J., & Calvert, C. (1996). Findings
from SUPER STARS: A health promotion program for families to enhance multiple
protective factors. Journal of Adolescent Research, 11(1): 68-96.
|
Abstract: This article discusses
SUPER STARS (Substance Use Prevention Education Resource/Self-esteem
Through Arts and Recreation Sessions), a preventive program for 6-11
year olds and their parents designed to reduce the probability of
substance abuse that uses a protective factor orientation. Families
participating in the program were identified by various community
agencies serving low-income urban families. A majority (92%) of the
participants were African-American. Protective factors utilized by
the program included: the family as a source of positive influence
and as a context for program delivery; individual and cultural ethnic
identification; and bonding with family and culture. SUPER STARS also
addressed several individual (negative attitude, poor self-image)
and family (conflict, stress) risk factors. The intervention emphasized
cultural legacy including Kwanzaa and its seven principles and utilized
African dance and music in the delivery of the program curriculum.
Program outcome analyses revealed that the children had more positive
feelings about themselves and their heritage after the program. In
addition, parents reported improved family functioning, increased
ability to deal with stress and conflict, and more positive feelings
about themselves and their family. The protective factors that showed
improvement from pre to post test have been found in the literature
to be related to lower levels of substance abuse. |
Farrell,
M. P., and Barnes, G. M. (1993). Family systems and social support: A test
of the effects of cohesion and adaptability on the functioning of parents
and adolescents. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 55, 119-132.
|
Abstract: The purpose of this
study was to test the relationships proposed in Olson's Circumplex
Model, Beavers's System Theory, and social support theory. Cohesion
and adaptability in families were examined in terms of their relation
to optimal family functioning. Of primary interest were tests of the
curvilinear relationships of cohesion and adaptability to optimal
family functioning found in previous studies considered by the authors
to be methodologically flawed. Six hundred ninety-nine families completed
Family Adaptation and Cohesion Evaluation Scales (FACES III) to assess
the effects of cohesion and adaptability on family members' psychological
functioning, behavior, and perceptions of family relationships. Instead
of the curvilinear effect found in previous studies by Olson and Beavers,
the authors found a direct linear relation ship between cohesion and
optimal family functioning. In addition, adaptation was found to be
directly related to optimal functioning, but only for girls. |
Furstenberg,
F. & Hughes M. E. (1995). Social capital and successful development
among at- risk youth. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 57(3): 580-592
|
Abstract: Using data from
a 20-year longitudinal study of teenage mothers and their children,
the authors examine the roles that family-based and community-based
social capital play in successful outcomes among disadvantaged youth.
Coleman's concept of social capital describes the family and community
resources invested in children that improve their chances of success.
Analysis of the data revealed that family-based and community-based
social capital were related to socioeconomic success and failure among
at-risk youth, but were not significantly related to early childbearing,
criminal activity, and depression. |
Gantman,
C.A. (1980). A closer look at families that work well. International Journal
of Family Therapy, 2(2): 106-119.
|
Abstract: The author provides
a definition of family, describes the functions of a family, and clarifies
the concept of a "normal family." A review of the literature
on healthy families reveals the factors that contribute to strength
in families, the most important being a well-defined family structure.
|
Green,
R.G., and Kolvezon, M.F. (1986). The correlates of healthy family functioning:
The role of consensus and conflict in the practice of family therapy. Journal
of Marital and Family Therapy, 12(1): 75-84.
|
Abstract: The purpose of this
study was to examine the effects of individual, dyadic, and triadic
family characteristics on family members' perceptions of family functioning.
Self-report data collected from 78 two-parent families revealed a
consistent association between individual characteristics of parents
and family competence and the emergence of perceived quality of both
parent-child and spousal relationships as predictors of family health.
The perception of family health was consistently found to be a function
of the family's dyadic characteristics. |
Hansen,
C. (1981). Living in with normal families. Family Process, 20, 53-75.
|
Abstract: This study was conducted
in 1966-67. The author argued that at the time, no clinical studies
of functional families had ever been conducted in the families' natural
habitat the home and their community. During 1966-67, the author lived
with three families for a week each. Although each family was originally
evaluated as "functional", they were later found to be at
different levels of successful family functioning. Family A was considered
superior in their level of functioning, family B, above average, and
family C, below average. Background information is given on each family.
In studying these families, the author had three objectives: 1) to
compare differences in each family's patterns of interaction; 2) to
inquire into the causes of these differences; and 3) to determine
if the findings could be useful to families or family health professionals.
The results revealed a number of differences among the families including
the following: 1) The more functional families displayed a smoother,
more relaxed rhythm while the more dysfunctional families appeared
to have a jerky, tense rhythm; 2) In the more functional families,
the parents seemed to listen more intently to their children; and
3) In the more functional families, parents tended to "practice
what they preach." These and many other differences are discussed
in detail. |
Hanson,
S.M.H. (1986). Healthy single parent families. Family Relations, 35, 125-132.
|
Abstract: The characteristics
of healthy single parent families are examined using factors identified
in the research literature on healthy two-parent nuclear families.
Attention is given to the following variables: social support, socioeconomic
status, communication, degree of religiousness, and problem solving
ability. The author sought to determine whether or not these variables
were related to the physical and mental health of single parents and
their children. Social support and good communication were found to
be most predictive of the single parents' physical and mental health.
Social support, good communication, and religiousness emerged as predictors
of the physical and mental health of the children. Socioeconomic status
and problem solving ability were not strongly related to parents'
or children's physical and mental health. |
Hurd,
E. P., Moore, C. and Rogers, R. (1995). Quiet success: Parenting strengths
among African Americans. Families in Society, 76(7): 434-443.
|
Abstract: Fifty-three African
American parents were interviewed concerning their perceptions of
their parenting strengths. Related areas also examined were parenting
support from external caregivers and the contribution African American
men make to the care of children. Results revealed 3 trends and 8
themes that contributed to parenting strengths. The 3 themes that
emerged were substantial parental involvement, considerable support
from external caregivers, and and a great deal of male involvement.
The most often cited themes were connection with family, emphasis
on achievement, respect for others, spirituality, self-reliance, importance
of education, coping skills, and self respect and racial pride. The
implications of these findings for social work and family practice
are discussed. |
Johnson,
K., Bryant, D., Strader, T., Bucholtz, G., Berbaum, M., Collins, D., &
Noe, T. (1996). Reducing alcohol and other drug use by strengthening community,
family, and youth resiliency: An evaluation of the Creating Lasting Connections
program. Journal of Adolescent Research, 11(1): 36-67.
|
Abstract: This article discusses
the Creating Lasting Connections (CLC) program which takes a multifaceted
approach to reducing alcohol and other drug use by focusing on community,
family, and personal resiliency factors that research has shown are
related to delayed onset and reduced frequency of substance abuse
among 12 through 14 year old youth. The CLC program consisted of two
components: a system-level component and a client-level component.
Within the system-level component, the church community was mobilized
to advocate alcohol and other drug abuse prevention and to identify
and recruit high risk youth and families for participation. Volunteers
from the church community also assisted in program evaluation and
retention activities. The client-level component consisted parent
and youth training and early intervention and case management services.
An experimental design was used to evaluate the CLC program over a
one year period. The results of the evaluation were consistent with
the goals of the program. Increases in community, family, and youth
resiliency factors were reported and the program produced moderating
effects on the onset and frequency of alcohol and drug abuse among
the youth. |
Moore,
K. A. (1994). Criteria for indicators of child well being. Paper prepared
for Indicators for Children's Well-Being conference, November 17, 1994,
Bethesda, MD.
|
Abstract: After highlighting
a lack of clear, valid, up-to-date indicators of child well-being
and the lack of consensus on what it is desirable to track, this paper
goes on to present criteria for designing a system of indicators about
children. Thirteen criteria are discussed in detail: comprehensive
coverage; children of all ages; clear and comprehensible; positive
outcomes; depth, breadth, and duration; common interpretation; consistency
over time; forward-looking; rigorous methods; geographically detailed;
cost efficient; reflective of social goals; and adjusted for demographic
trends. This paper provides a detailed discussion of important issues
in designing an indicators system to track child well-being. |
Olson,
David H.; Hamilton I. McCubbin; et al. (1983). Families: What Makes Them
Work. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
|
Abstract: Research study identifying
patterns of marital and family strength and coping across life-cycle.
|
Olson,
David H.; Candyce S. Russell; and Douglas H. Sprenkle. (1989). Circumplex
model: Systematic assessment and treatment of families. New York, NY: Haworth
Press.
|
Abstract: Theory/research-based
discussion of typical and problematic issues in family dynamics. |
Reynolds,
Gail. (1995). Improving the parenting skills of teenage mothers in a school
based child care center. Ed. D. Practicum Report, Nova Southeastern University.
ERIC Document Reproduction Service No ED395689
|
Abstract: The Parent-Infant
Care Center, a component of the School Based Youth Services program,
was designed to enable parenting students who needed child care support
to continue attending school. This practicum project devised an intervention
at the Center to address teen parents' lack of knowledge, experience,
and skills needed to appropriately care for their infants. It was
assumed that increased resource knowledge, enhanced interpersonal
relationships, and augmented parenting skills would make a difference
in the teen mothers' approach to parenting. Bi-weekly peer support
groups were established to accomplish these goals. The group sessions
were specifically designed to address issues related to parenting,
employability, life management skills, and child development. The
child development component introduced specific prevention and wellness
promotion content to the teen mothers. Additionally, individual counseling
was used to develop a trusting relationship to build a support system
for each teen mother which reinforced the issues discussed in the
groups. Data from several evaluation instruments gathered at the beginning
and end of the 3 month implementation period indicated that: (1) there
was an increase in the teen mothers' knowledge about community resources;
(2) the teen mothers felt more supported by significant adults; (3)
teen mothers developed a sensitivity to the development of their babies;
and (4) the physical well being of the infants improved, as reflected
in the increase in "wellness" appointments and completion
of immunizations. |
Schumm,
W.R. (1984). Beyond relationship characteristics of strong families: Constructing
a model of family strengths. Family Perspective, 19(4): 1-9.
|
Abstract: Theory-based proposal
integrating Stinnett and DeFrain's family strengths model. This article
presents a model of family strengths which attempts to address the
lack of integration of concepts in the family strengths literature
by illustrating how these concepts are related to one another. An
analysis of the contents of several family strengths articles revealed
six family strengths which seem to be interrelated: religious orientation,
appreciation, time together, open communication, and conflict/crisis
coping or resolution. Religious orientation is considered the "prime
mover" variable in the model because it indirectly influences
all the other variables, however, it is not a necessary and sufficient
cause of the other five family strength variables. The author believes
that the proposed model lays the groundwork for family strengths theory
development and contends that all the relationships in the model can
be empirically tested. The model is applicable to the area of family
therapy and can be used by clinicians to pinpoint areas where improvement
is needed in families seeking treatment. |
Pearsall,
P. (1990). The power of the family: Strength, comfort and healing. New York:
Doubleday
|
Abstract: A healthy family
is not one that exists problem-free. Crises often bring families closer
together. The focus on family pathology must be redirected and greater
emphasis should be placed on those families that are successful in
the face of adversity. "Normalcy" often signifies attaining
self success and material possessions and can become a health hazard
if we are too absorbed in the "successful individual" ideal.
The author contends that the family's power is limitless in helping
its members to recognize the dangers of "normalcy" and in
combating the stress and alienation encountered in everyday life.
Family members must be mutually responsible for one another. The author
believes that parents should not only be responsible for caring for
their children but should also care for their aging parents or "repay
the family debt." The reader is encouraged to develop a psychological
family portrait listing the names of all those considered family and
to think about why each person is on the list. This psychological
family portrait, the author argues, is part of who we are and changes
as we change. |
Stinnett,
N. Sanders, G. Defrain, J., and Parkhurst, A. (1982). A nationwide study
of families who perceive themselves as strong. Family Perspective, 16(1):
15-22.
|
Abstract: Husbands and wives
from across the country responded to the Family Strengths Inventory,
an instrument designed to measure components of family life that contribute
to family strengths. Five factors emerged as the most important family
strengths: love, religion, respect, communication, and individuality.
These same factors were considered by the respondents to be important
in husband-wife and parent-child relationships. The majority of the
respondents also reported that they enjoyed a high degree of satisfaction
in their relationships with their spouses and their children. Spending
quality time together was found to be important in the areas of family
relationships and strengths. |
Thornton,
A., Orbuch, T. L., and Axinn, W.G. (1995). Parent-child relationships during
the transition to adulthood. Journal of Family Issues, 16(5): 538-564.
|
Abstract: The purpose of this
article is to examine parents' and children's conceptualizations,
perceptions, and reports of parent-child relationships using data
from a panel study. This study differs from many previous studies
on parent-child relationships in that it focuses on this relationship
during the middle years when the child is making the shift to independent
adulthood. Most previous studies have focused on the parent-child
relationship at the beginning of the child's life or at the end of
the parent's life. The results of the present study indicated that
most parents and children reported positive and supportive relationships
and children more often rated their relationship with their mother
as more positive than their relationship with their father. The authors
also found that parent-child relationships improve as children make
the transition to adulthood, that parent-child relationships exhibit
continuity over time (those reporting a positive relationship when
the child was 18 also reported a positive relationship when the child
was 23), and that parents and children perceive their relationship
differently. |
Werner,
E. E. (1989). High risk children in young adulthood: A longitudinal study
from birth to 32 years. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 59(2): 72-81.
|
Abstract: The purpose of this
article is to describe a 30-year follow-up study of a 1955 birth cohort
on the island of Kauai, Hawaii. The relative impact of biological
and psychosocial risk factors, stressful life events, and protective
factors were traced beginning in the prenatal period and continuing
through childhood, late adolescence, and young adulthood. The results
of this longitudinal study revealed three types of protective factors:
1) dispositional attributes, 2) affectional ties within the family,
and 3) external support systems. These protective factors were found
to contribute to resilience in children by fostering adaptation to
specific risk factors or stressful life events. The impact of protective
and risk factors changed with the stages of the life cycle and varied
with the gender of the individual as well. |
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