Introduction

The ability to communicate effectively with others is an important skill, both for academic achievement and for general life success.  Competence in communication includes many different types of skills, including speaking, reading, writing, and body movements such as gestures and sign language.  Communication also includes less easily recognized skills such as understanding and using grammar effectively and understanding the “rules” or conventions of communication in a particular culture and situation.  Communication skills are constantly being refined; the development of communication begins in earliest infancy and continues throughout life (Whitmore and Goodman, 1995).

Initially, infants’ communication is largely nonverbal.  Children develop communication skills, such as crying and body movements, as a means of interacting with others around them in order to have their basic needs met (Vygotsky, 1978).  As most infants grow, they develop basic language skills simply by listening to the speech of adults around them.  By about 12 months, most babies put together vowel and consonant sounds such as “bababa” to form babbling.  Children typically learn their first words between about 12 and 18 months, and by age 4 most children can put together complex sentences.  By the time they enter school, most children can use and understand oral language and can follow simple instructions.  This developing ability to speak is important because it gives children a wider range of ways to communicate effectively (Shaffer, 1999). 

Developing competence in communication is an ongoing process.  Even though a child’s basic speaking abilities are largely developed in early childhood, communication skills continue to improve during the elementary years, through adolescence, and even in adulthood.  Good oral communication makes it easier for children to learn by listening, to take part in peer-group activities, and to gain acceptance by peers.  Children’s oral communication skills continue to improve through the elementary years.  Elementary children’s understanding of sentence structure and word meaning becomes more refined as they practice speaking and listening to oral language.   Their vocabulary is more extensive, which enables them to express themselves more accurately and to understand more complex and detailed instructions (Berk, 1996). 

During the early school years, most children also develop the ability to communicate through reading and writing.  Learning to read is perhaps one of the most complex, yet most important, achievements of elementary school.  Children who read well are more successful in school, less likely to drop out, and more likely to succeed in today’s knowledge-based, technology-driven society (Hiebert, 1991).  Many studies identify the end of third grade as the crucial point for reading development.  Children who do not read well and independently by that point are much less likely to be good readers and are more likely to have difficulty in other school subjects because of their reading difficulties (Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998).  Unfortunately, in 1994 more than 40% of American fourth graders lacked even basic reading skills, and 70% were not proficient readers (America Reads, 1998). Because reading is such a crucial skill, yet one that many American children do not fully develop, many organizations are focusing efforts on improving reading skills in grades 1 - 3.  National initiatives, such as the President’s America Reads Challenge, are furthering this effort by increasing awareness of the importance of reading and by providing training and support to groups working to improve children’s reading and writing abilities (America Reads, 1998).

Even though most formal reading education takes place in elementary school, it is important to recognize that many of the foundations of reading are built well before a child enters school.  Reading is the process of associating print symbols with spoken words and phrases.  Practices such as reading aloud while following the print with a finger and labeling objects in the child’s environment with words help children learn to associate print with sounds even before they begin formal “reading instruction” (Davis & Lewis, 1997).
 

Suggested Indicators

The following are some appropriate indicators of positive program outcomes for children in the area of communication competence, based on the NCEO model (Ysseldyke & Thurlow, 1993), as adapted for community-based programs by the Children’s Outcome Work Group.  The appropriateness of any given indicator for your program evaluation depends on the age of the children you serve, the setting, and the goals and activities of your particular program.
 

• Percent of children who demonstrate age-appropriate understanding of oral language
• Percent of children who effectively use spoken language in an age-appropriate manner
• Percent of children who can follow multi-step oral directions
• Percent of children who demonstrate age-appropriate reading and writing skills

Competence in communication is an important skill for most children.  Children who can understand and use oral and written language are more likely to be successful in school, in peer and adult-child relationships, and in later employment.  State Strengthening projects and other community-based programs can facilitate children’s developing communication skills by providing them with opportunities to use written and spoken language.  Typical program activities such as drama play, reading aloud, singing, writing letters, telling stories, following directions, and even navigating the World Wide Web can provide opportunities for children to practice communicating.

In early elementary school, learning to read and write are crucial developmental achievements that have important effects on children’s later school and life success.  For many State Strengthening projects, improving children’s reading may be an important component of efforts to increase academic and functional literacy.  State Strengthening projects can encourage the development of reading and skills through formal programming — such as reading tutoring programs — or through informal means — such as incorporating meaningful reading and writing into other program activities, such as group games, drama performances, or computer literacy activities.
 

References

 America Reads Challenge (1998).  America reads: Building literacy through community partnerships.  Washington, DC:  U. S. Department of Education.

 Berk, L. E.   (1996).  Infants, children, and adolescents. (2nd Ed.).  Boston:  Allyn and Bacon.

 Davis, D., & Lewis, J. P.  (1997).  Tips for parents about reading: Information and ideas for helping children through grade eight succeed with reading.  Portland, OR: Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory’s Comprehensive Center, Region X and Curriculum and Instruction Services.

 Hiebert, E. H.  (Ed.)  (1991).  Literacy for a diverse society: Perspectives, practices, and policies.  New York: Teachers College Press. 

 Shaffer, D.  (1999).  Developmental psychology: Childhood and adolescence (5th Ed.).  Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.

 Snow, C. E., Burns, M. S., & Griffin, P. (Eds.)  (1998).  Preventing reading difficulties in young children.  Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

 Vygotsky, L. S. (1978).  Mind in society.  Cambridge, MA:  Harvard University Press.

 Whitmore, K. F., & Goodman, Y. M. (1995).  Transforming curriculum in language and literacy.  In S. Bredekamp & T. Rosegrant (Eds.), Reaching potentials:  Transforming early childhood curriculum and assessment (pp. 145-166). Washington, D.C.:  National Association for the Education of Young Children.

 Ysseldyke, J. E., & Thurlow, M. (1993, October). Developing a model of educational outcomes (NCEO Report No. 1). Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota, College of Education, National Center on Educational Outcomes.
 
 

MEASURES:  Demonstrates Competence in Communication
 

The following standardized assessments are provided as examples of measures that may be useful for evaluation of children’s communication competence in community-based programs.  This listing is not comprehensive and is not intended as an endorsement of any particular measure.  Some of the assessment instruments that follow are copyrighted and require specific levels of training to administer.  Prices of measures are subject to change.  In deciding to use any standardized measures or checklists, it is important to review specific items and subscales to decide how well they fit your program.

It is important to recognize that standardized measures, such as those described below, are not the only appropriate ways to assess children’s communication skills.  For school-aged children, existing school records may include some useful data.  Grades, standardized test scores, and teachers’ narrative evaluations of progress in the area of language arts provide some indication of children’s facility in using language.  Reading grades and scores on standardized tests such as the Iowa Test of Basic Skills may be of particular interest to State Strengthening programs with a focus on improving literacy.  Teacher checklists and narrative reports may also provide valuable information about children’s competence in oral and written communication, including the ability to follow directions.
 
 

1.  Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test — Third Edition (PPVT-III) L. M. Dunn & L. M. Dunn
Date:    1998 

Subtests:    N/A 

Available Through:

American Guidance Service
4201 Woodland Road
P. O. Box 99
Circle Pines, MN  55014

$229.95 for a complete kit including forms IIIA and IIIB; $124.95 for a single test edition

Children, adolescents, and adults ages 2 - 90+

This assessment provides a basic measure of listening comprehension for spoken words in standard English.  The assessment is easy to administer, can be completed in 10 - 12 minutes, and does not require the child to speak, read, or write.  The major limitation of the PPVT-III is that it measures only receptive vocabulary and not ability to produce language, and thus provides a fairly limited screening of language development.  The PPVT-III is also available in Spanish as the Test de Vocabulario en Imagenes Peabody (TVIP).

Subtests:   N/A 

Available Through:

American Guidance Service
4201 Woodland Road
P. O. Box 99
Circle Pines, MN  55014

$124.95 for a complete test kit

Children, adolescents, and adults ages 2 - 90+

This assessment provides a basic measure of speech production for children and adults.  The assessment requires children to produce one-word labels of pictures.  It requires little training to administer and can be completed in about 15 minutes.  The major limitation of the EVT is that it measures only production of individual words and not ability to produce fluent phrases and sentences, and thus provides a somewhat limited screening of language development.  Because it measures productive vocabulary, the EVT may also underestimate children’s language comprehension.

Subtests:

Oral Expression Scale
Written Expression Scale
Listening Comprehension Scale

American Guidance Service
4201 Woodland Road
P. O. Box 99
Circle Pines, MN  55014

$244.95 for a complete test kit.  Individual scales are also available separately.

Children and adolescents ages 5 - 21

This assessment provides a comprehensive measure of three important components of communication: oral expression, written expression, and listening comprehension.  The scales require some training to administer.  Each scale takes approximately 10 - 25 minutes to administer.  The written expression scale can be administered individually or in a group; the other scales must be administered and scored individually.  The listening comprehension and oral expression scales do not require the child to read or write. 

Subtests:

Four domains and eleven subdomains:
1) Communication (Receptive, Expressive, and Written)
  2) Daily Living Skills (Personal, Domestic, and Community)
  3) Socialization (Interpersonal Relationships, Play and Leisure Time, and Coping Skills)
 4) Motor Skills (Gross and Fine)

  American Guidance Service (AGS)
  4201 Woodland Road
  P.O.  Box 99
  Circle Pines, MN  55014-1796
  Phone: 1-800-328-2560

Check with AGS for current prices; prices vary for different versions.
Starter sets include manual, 10 questionnaire forms, and parent report forms.

3 - 12 years for Classroom edition; birth to 18 years for Interview edition

The Classroom edition is a 244-item questionnaire completed by teachers, and takes about 20 minutes to administer.  The Interview edition is administered to parents or caregivers as a semi-structured interview, and takes 20 - 60 minutes.  Qualified professionals must interpret the scores.  Computer programs may be purchased for analysis, and materials are available in Spanish.  Standardized on a large national sample that reflects U.S. census data.  Appears to be valid and flexible for use with a wide range of ages.

Subtests: Academic Abilities
                  Scientific Thinking
                  Social Studies
                  The Arts
                   Physical Development
                   Personal and Social Development
                   Language and Literacy
                   Mathematical Thinking

Available Through:

 The Work Sampling System
 Rebus Planning Associates, Inc.
 1103 South University Ave.
 Ann Arbor, Michigan  48104

Target Audience:

 Preschool through Grade 3

This measure is a series of checklists used to assist teachers in observing, recording and evaluating an individual child’s skills, knowledge, behaviors, and accomplishments.  The behaviors and skills assessed are those considered to be developmentally appropriate for most children in this age range.

Subtests:

Personal-Social Adaptive
Motor (Gross and Fine)
Communication (Receptive and Expressive)
Cognitive

 Riverside Publishing
 425 Spring Lake Drive
 Itasca, IL  60143-2079
 Phone:  1-800-323-9540

$261.00 for complete BDI program, including BDI screening program

 Birth through age 8 years

Designed to assess key developmental skills in children from birth to age 8. This assessment will provide a good developmental screening of children and can be used to monitor children’s developmental progress and to identify developmentally delayed children. This version of the Battelle takes about 20 minutes per child to administer.  A longer version called the Battelle Developmental Inventory is also available for more in-depth assessments.

Academic and Functional Literacy	Bibliography
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