The logistics of school lunch: What it takes to put a healthy meal on every tray, every day

Through the University of Arizona’s College of Agriculture, Life and Environmental Sciences, nutrition researchers study how science, food systems and human behavior intersect, while programs in nutritional sciences, dietetics and nutrition and food systems prepare graduates to apply that knowledge in practice. Their work helps translate complex nutrition research into practical understanding — including the science and systems behind putting a healthy meal on every school lunch tray, every day.

As Arizona’s students head back to school this August, families may notice a change in their school’s policies around food on campus. That’s because of a new state law, the Arizona Healthy Schools Act, which goes into effect at the beginning of the 2026-2027 school year. Passed in 2025, the new law prohibits schools from serving foods containing certain food dyes and additives the state legislature has defined as ultra-processed.

As schools and students adjust to the new regulations, families may find themselves wondering about exactly how school meal programs work. We talked with Jamie Lee Elliott, an associate professor of practice in the University of Arizona School of Nutritional Sciences and Wellness (SNSW), and Lindsay Aguilar, director of the Tucson Unified School District’s Food Services Department and SNSW alum, about how school districts approach the monumental task of providing nutritious meals to thousands of students each day.

What goes into planning a school menu?

Public school menus are generally managed at the district level by professionals with experience in nutrition science or food service. District food service directors must navigate a complex web of nutrition regulations, tight budgets and the sometimes-finicky tastes of the students they serve.

Elliott, who has extensive experience running school meal programs, laid out a list of main factors most food service directors consider as they plan school menus:

• Nutrition
  In order to participate in the National School Lunch Program (NSLP), school meals must meet specific nutrition standards set by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. They must also follow any applicable regulations at the state and district level. 
• Budget
  School meal budgets are calculated based on the number and income level of students served and may vary depending on the proportion of students who qualify for free or reduced-price meals through the NSLP. Budgets include the cost of food, labor and infrastructure.
• Procurement
  Food service directors must balance USDA commodity allocations, fresh purchasing requirements, and manufacturer offerings as they plan school menus.
• Student preferences and community perception
  School meals need to appeal to students, parents and school boards.

That last element carries as much weight as any of the other three.

“One concept I live by is, ‘It’s not nutritious until it’s eaten,’” Elliott said. “We have to find a middle ground between nutrient-dense foods and also what students will recognize and want to consume.”

What basic nutrition guidelines do school food programs follow?

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Most public and nonprofit schools participate in the National School Lunch Program, a federally assisted meal program that provides free or low-cost nutrition for school children. Participation in the program means that school meals must meet certain criteria, called a “meal pattern,” which is based on the USDA’s Dietary Guidelines for Americans.

Currently, the NSLP has minimum and maximum calorie counts per meal, adjusted to a student’s grade level. It also requires schools to track sugar, sodium, saturated fats and trans fats.

“There are requirements for each meal each day, and then there are requirements over the course of the school week,” Aguilar said. “We have requirements about certain nutrients, and about food groups. For example, we have to serve different colored vegetables across the week.”

Food allergies further complicate matters for menu planners.

“Students with allergies are protected by the Americans with Disabilities Act,” Elliott said. “We need to make accommodations for students who fall into that category – they need to have an equivalent meal that is safe for them. That could look very different depending on what the allergy is.” 

In addition to federal guidelines, school menus are also subject to state regulations, like the Arizona Healthy Schools Act, as well as any nutrition guidelines set by their individual district.

What determines the budget for school meal programs?

The NSLP operates under a reimbursement system in which schools pay for meals with district funding, and then the district is reimbursed by the federal government. On average, the current federal reimbursement rate for free or reduced-price lunch is around $4.60 per meal per student, though exact rates depend on specific student demographics.

“You spend more on a latte than schools get for a lunch,” Aguilar said. “For that we have to produce a meal that includes two ounces of whole grain, two ounces of lean protein, a cup of fruit, a cup of vegetable, and a cup of fluid milk. And that number has to include all food, labor and operational costs.”

Are school meals cooked from scratch?

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Yes – and no.

“Most schools that I’ve had experience with have provided a mix of scratch-cooked meals and processed foods like chicken nuggets,” Elliott said.

She said that labor costs are a primary constraint on scratch-cooked meals, since that type of cooking requires more skills than re-heating prepared foods, which increases pay expectations. It also takes longer, which increases the number of work hours required.

Space and equipment are other major limiting factors.

“Since at least as far back as the 1970s, school kitchens were designed more to reheat food than to cook from scratch,” Elliott said. “If you don’t have the space in the kitchen to do that work, that’s a really hard issue to overcome.”

But even when certain foods can’t be cooked from scratch, that doesn’t mean they’re nutritionally deficient. Elliott explained that food manufacturers have special formulations for the processed foods they provide for school meals.

“Often the processed foods available to school districts are not the same version that you can buy at the grocery store,” she said. “They have altered nutritional contributions compared to what we can get conventionally. That could be lowered sodium, or lowered sugar. These foods are very much geared towards compliance with the NSLP guidelines.”

What does the menu planning process look like?

School districts start planning their menus nearly a year in advance.

“In TUSD, we start our menu planning for the following school year as early as November of the previous year,” said Aguilar. “We’re part of a Southern Arizona farm-to-institution network, so we work with farmers to bring local produce into our school members. We start planning the next year’s crops with our local farmers from November through January, then we start working on things like commodity allocations and so on.”

She said that her district plans their menu calendars in five-week cycles, in part to maintain flexibility so they can respond to any potential food recalls or disruptions to distribution.

Any potential new menu items are vetted by district representatives and members of the school community well before they appear on the lunch calendar.

“We actually see and taste every food item that’s put on our menu, and we send everything out for student testing as well,” Aguilar said. “We have to create menus that are attractive and appealing to five- to 18-year-olds.”

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How will recent changes like the Arizona Healthy Schools Act affect school meal programs?

The Arizona Healthy Schools Act prohibits schools from serving foods containing any of the following ingredients:

Large-scale changes like these tend to include a fair amount of lead time to give schools – and manufacturers – time to adjust. 

“School cafeterias have had some time to prepare for this change,” Aguilar said. “Where you’re likely to see changes is in classrooms and at school sites. The new law will affect what parents can send for classroom celebrations, what can be served at class or school parties, fundraising events, and school stores.”

If parents are unsure about how their school district policies are changing as a result of the new state law, they’ll likely find answers on the school or district website.

“For TUSD, we’ve provided a resource list of retail items that are compliant with the new regulations,” Aguilar said. “And for things like parties and fundraisers, parents and schools can purchase items that are developed specifically for K-12 through our catering services.”

Elliott said that families who want to get involved with their school’s menu planning can do so by joining their district’s wellness committee.

“In Arizona, it’s required that each school district has a wellness committee that’s open to community members,” she said. “They meet on a regular basis to discuss wellness initiatives, including the food that’s served. They really want a mix of students, parents, teachers and administrators, so if you’re interested in this topic, I encourage you to look into joining the committee for your district.”