#|Abasheeva, N. E.; Revenskii, V. A.; Korsunova, T. M.  Influence of industrial effluence of the Selenga pulp and paper mill on soil and plants.  Eurasian Soil Science  vol. 28 (6):  p.122-130.  1996.  Irrigation of alluvial-meadow soil in the Lake Baikal area of Russia by purified industrial effluent with a salt concentration of 758-1319 mg/litre, including 437-745 mg sulfates/litre, led to an increasein the content of exchangeable sodium, the accumulation of fewer nitrates, and a decrease in the activity of cellulose decomposition.  However,a structure-forming effect of the effluent was observed, with a widening of the CHA:CFA ratio. The yield of dry weight of grasses and their nutrition capacity did not differ from the variant receiving river-water irrigation. Brief (10-13 years) irrigation of fodder crops by purified waste water with mineralization of 1.0-1.5 g/litre is permitted; dilution of the effluent with river water is advised to prevent soil degradation.
#|Abbott, J D ; Hinton, S W ; Borton, D L.  Pilot scale validation of the river/fish bioaccumulation modeling program for nonpolar hydrophobic organic compounds using the model compounds 2,3,7,8-TCDD and 2,3,7,8-TCDF.  ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY vol. 14, no. 11, pp. 1999-2012, 1995.  The interactive and user-friendly PC-computer-based RIVER/FISH mechanistic modeling procedure was evaluated and found to provide credible simulations of aquatic organism bioaccumulation for nonpolar hydrophobic organic chemicals (NPHOCs) using a four-trophic-level food web calculation methodology. Model evaluation included calibration to observations of tetrachlorinated dibenzodioxin and -furan (TCDD/F) bioaccumulation in largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) and channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) that were exposed in pilot-scale experimental streams receiving biologically treated pulp mill effluent and subsequent comparison of model predictions without bioaccumulation parameter adjustment (validation) to similar but independently obtained bioaccumulation observations. When calibrated with site-specific information on NPHOC loading rates and organism feeding habits, model prediction uncertainty was within U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) established standards averaging 1.1 pg/g for the observations used for model validation, which all measured <20 pg/g. The procedure appears suitable for field-scale applications provided the site-specific feeding habits of each organism in the simulated food web can be estimated accurately, all significant chemical loadings are quantified, and the natural variability of bioaccumulation processes is considered when interpreting simulation results.
#|Abbott, J D ; Hinton, S W.  Trends in 2,3,7,8-TCDD concentrations in fish tissues downstream of pulp mills bleaching with chlorine. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY vol. 15, no. 7, pp. 1163-1165, 1996. Field measurements of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) concentrations in fish tissues from riverine environments impacted by treated pulp and paper industry effluent in the United States were analyzed. Data from 39 sites in 14 states across the four major U.S. paper-making regions were assembled and analyzed to determine the annual change in lipid-normalized concentrations of TCDD in fish tissue. The results provide strong evidence of a nationwide trend of decreasing lipid-normalized TCDD concentrations in fish tissue, with 84% of the examined sites showing a decrease. While the paucity of data currently limits any conclusions regarding the statistical significance at individual sites, the overall median rate calculated indicates a 0.36 annual fractional decrease in lipid-normalized concentrations of TCDD in fish tissue (0.18 to 0.51, 95% confidence interval) the average annual fractional decrease was 0.35 (0.23 to 0.47, 95% confidence interval). Subdividing fish into benthic and nonbenthic categories resulted in rates which were not significantly different from one another for both the median and mean statistics.
#|Abdelghani, A. A. T., Pramar, Y. V., Mandal, T. K., Tchounwou, P. B., & Heyer, L.  1995.  Levels of Toxicities of Selected Inorganic and Organic Contaminants.  J Environ Sci Health-Pestic Food Contam Agric Wastes vB30, n5, p717(15).  The levels of cadmium, lead, and hexachlorobutadiene in various environmental samples from Devil's swamp, LA, were determined, as well as the toxicities of arsenic, Cd, and Pb to bluegills and crawfish. Results indicated that Cd and Pb were present in almost all type of environmental samples examined. The levels in all fish samples were below the EPA water-quality criteria of 10 and 50 ppb for Cd and Pb, respectively. However, hazardous levels were detected in crawfish and water samples. Hexachlorobutadiene levels ranged from less than 0.01 to 0.48 ppb in water samples and from less than 0.05 to 0.40 ppb in sediment samples. Mercury was found to be the most toxic metal and As the least toxic to bluegills and crawfish, with bluegills the more sensitive species. Mixtures of Cd with As or Hg resulted in a toxic effect that was additive, while the mixture of As and Hg provided a combined toxic effect that was synergistic.
#|Abdel-Hamid Mohammad I; Shaaban-Dessouki Sami A; Skulberg Olav M.  Water quality of the River Nile: III. Toxicity assessment of six industrial effluents polluting the River Nile. Environmental Toxicology and Water Quality 8 (3):p239-254 1993.  Six different industrial effluents were chemically and physically characterized. Their toxicity was evaluated using biotests with Selenastrum capricornutum strain NIVA-CHL1. The growth of the test alga showed either inhibition or stimulation. Two of the effluents were highlyn inhibitory with EC-50 values ranging between 1 and 10% (v/v) effluent concentrations. Others showed low growth inhibitory effects (50% lt EC-50 lt 100%). EC-50 values derived from the growth parameters, algal dry weight, cell count, growth rate, and area under the growth curve were almost similar for those two effluents exhibiting highly inhibitory effects. The toxicity values, calculated from algal dry weight and cell count showed, a strong positive linear relationship (r = 0.97 at p lt 0.0001). The potential toxicity of some effluents was partly related to their high content of heavy metals. Changes in mean cell volume of the test alga may be used as an indicator for the potential effects of toxic effluents on the overall cellular activities. The results emphasized the indispensable role of algal bioassays among the basis of relevant and quantitative information about the biological impacts of the investigated effluents on the receiving waters.
#|Adams, S M ; Ham, K D ; Greeley, M S ; LeHew, R F ; Hinton, D E ; Saylor, C F.  Downstream gradients in bioindicator responses: Point source contaminant effects on fish health.  CANADIAN JOURNAL OF FISHERIES AND AQUATIC SCIENCES vol. 53, no. 10, pp 2177-2187, 1996.  To investigate potential causal relationships between contaminant exposure and biological responses in fish, a suite of bioindicators ranging from the biochemical to the community-level were measured in fish populations and communities downstream from a bleached kraft mill effluent discharge. Downstream gradients in responses were evident in elevated hepatic mixed-function oxygenase activity, several measures of condition and bioenergetic status, growth, the health assessment index, and several fish community-level parameters. A multivariate discriminant analysis procedure, which included many of the individual bioindicators, also demonstrated a gradient in integrated health status of a sentinel fish species in the contaminated river. These downstream response gradients were probably influenced to a greater degree by contaminant discharges than by natural or anthropogenic nutrient sources downstream.  Establishing causal relationships between a specific contaminant source and responses in sentinel aquatic organisms becomes relatively more straightforward when downstream gradients in biological responses are observed at multiple levels of biological organization.
#|Adjusted streamflow and storage: Columbia River and Coastal Basins, 1928--1989.  Crook (A.G.) Co., Beaverton, OR. Report No.: DOE/BP/21985-5, Jul 93  337p. Order this product from NTIS by: phoneat 1-800-553-NTIS (U.S. customers); (703)605-600 (other countries); fax at (703)321-8547; and email at orders@ntis.fedworld.gov. The development of irrigation projects since the 1830's and theconstruction of major dams and reservoirs since the early 1900's have altered substantially the natural streamflow regimen of the Columbia River and its tributaries.  As development expanded a multipurpose approach to streamflow regulation evolved to provide flood control, irrigation, hydropower generation, navigation, recreation, water quality enhancement, fish and wildlife, and instream flow maintenance. The responsible agencies use computer programs to determine the effects of various alternative system regulations. This report describes the development of the streamflow data that these computer programs use.
#|Ahle, R C ; Jobsis, G. Development of an index of biotic integrity for the lower Piedmont ecoregion of South Carolina using stream fish communities.  LAKE AND RESERVOIR MANAGEMENT vol. 9, no. 2, p. 50, 1994. Annu. International Symposium of the North American Lake Management Society.  Orlando, FL (USA): Oct 31-Nov 5.  The goal of this research was to develop and test an index of biotic integrity (IBI) using fish communities of nine third-order streams in the Lower Piedmont Ecoregion of South Carolina. Six streams with minor anthropogenic impacts were compared with three streams receiving source and nonpoint source effluents from gold mine operations. The biological integrity ratings for streams receiving gold mine effluent ranged from very poor to marginally fair, whereas the biological integrity ratings for the remaining six streams ranged from fair to very good. The creek selected as the reference stream rated from good to excellent, establishing a baseline for attainable conditions for the ecoregion. The IBI supplied biological data that was useful in identifying perturbations based on alterations occurring in fish communities. The results of this study suggest that the IBI could be an excellent tool for monitoring the biological components of streams in the lower piedmont ecosystem in South Carolina.
#|Ahtiainen,-J.; Nakari,-T.; Silvonen,-J. Toxicity of TCF and ECF pulp bleaching effluents assessed by biological toxicity tests. ENVIRONMENTAL FATE AND EFFECTS OF PULP AND PAPER MILL EFFLUENTS. Servos,-M.R.; Munkittrick,-K.R.; Carey,-J.H.; van-der-Kraak,-G.J. (eds.)  DELRAY BEACH, FL 33483 (USA)  ST. LUCIE PRESS.1996 pp. 33-40. The toxicity of eighteen different untreated or secondary treated TCF (total chlorine free), ECF (elemental chlorine free) and conventional (Cl sub(2)) bleaching effluents was assessed by a battery of biological tests. The toxicity tests used were: Pseudomonas putida growth inhibition test, Vibrio fisheri luminescence bacteria test, Selenastrum capricornutum algal growth inhibition test, Daphnia magna mobility inhibition (24 h) test and Brachydanio rerio zebra fish hatching and survival test. In the P. putida growth inhibition test only conventional bleaching effluents and ECF birch pulp effluent gave a slightly toxic response. The V. fisheri test was more sensitive. The EC50 values of most untreated ECF and TCF effluents were under 10% effluent concentrations (conventional effluent 15%) and secondary treated effluents were not toxic. All untreated bleaching effluents gave a toxic response in S. capricornutum algal test. EC50 values varied between 12 and 46% effluent concentrations. Treated effluents were not toxic and had a stimulative impact on algal growth. The results obtained by the D. magna test showed that effluents of TCF, ECF (birch pulp) and conventional (pine pulp) bleaching were equally toxic (LC50 values about 40%). Untreated TCF and ECF (pine and mixed pine and birch pulp) like secondary and pilot treated effluents were all nontoxic. The results obtained by the egg/larvae test of zebra fish showed that the lowest effect concentration (LOEC) values differed between hatching and mortality of the larvae. Some effluents were more harmful to hatching while others had a greater effect on mortality. Secondary treated effluents did not have any significant effects. Of the untreated effluents, TCF and conventional (both pine pulp) were the most toxic (LOEC values of hatching between 1 and 3.2% and mortality between 12 and 6.8%). The effects of all the other samples were nearly the same (LOEC values varying between 5 and 25%). There was no significant difference in toxicity between untreated conventional, ECF and TFC bleaching effluents. The natural constituents of wood are probably responsible for the toxicity observed in ECF and TCF effluents.
#|Ali, M M ; Soltan, M E.  The impact of three industrial effluents on submerged aquatic plants in the River Nile, Egypt.  MANAGEMENT AND ECOLOGY OF FRESHWATER PLANTS. PROCEEDINGS OF THE 9TH INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON AQUATIC WEEDS, EUROPEAN WEED RESEARCH SOCIETY.  Affrey, J M ; Barrett, P R F ; Murphy, K J ; Wade, P M  (eds ).  DEV. HYDROBIOL. no. 120 pp. 77-83, 1996.  Int. Symp. on Aquatic Weeds:(Ireland), 1994.  KLUWER ACADEMIC:  DORDRECHT.  The submerged vegetation growing in the drainage channels taking effluent from three factories (two processing sugar cane plus one producing chipboard or paper pulp and one large fertilizer plant) into the River Nile in Upper Egypt, and in the river itself upstream and downstream of the discharge points, was studied during 1994. The main pollutants from the sugar cane factory effluents comprised organic matter, including carbohydrates from the fertilizer plant ammonia was the principal pollutant. The study investigated the effect of these different pollutants on aquatic plant standing crop and distribution, in relation to physico-chemical characteristics of water and hydrosoil.  In the effluent channels, dominated by large growths of sewage fungus, submerged vegetation was absent, although some emergent vegetation survived. In the most polluted river sites, up to 2 km downstream of discharge points, the flora was restricted to Potamogeton pectinatus L.  Elsewhere in the river, a more diverse submerged flora was present, including Ceratophyllum demersum L. and Potamogeton crispus L.
#|Allen H E, & Hansen D J.  The importance of trace metal speciation to water quality criteria.  Water Environment Research, 68 (1), 1996.  42-54. Because the bioavailability of a trace metal, and consequently its toxicity, is dependent on the physical and chemical form of the metal, we have presented a detailed assessment of how speciation of copper would be expected to affect its toxicity. Principles of chemical speciation are applied to demonstrate that inorganic forms will be in constant proportion to each other and to free copper ion during the course of the titration of a sample of natural water with copper or in the various treatments in a toxicity test conducted at constant pH and alkalinity. Binding of copper to dissolved organic matter or to suspended particulate matter may render the copper nonbioavailable. We have considered a simple complexation model to describe the complexation of copper to soluble ligands. Naturally occurring dissolved organic matter is present at concentrations only slightly greater than that of copper. Consequently, titration of water with copper results in a nonlinear relationship between the concentration of copper present as free copper ion plus inorganic copper species. The effects of stability constant of the complex, concentration of ligand, and the total copper concentration are evaluated. We have related bioavailable copper to the concentration of free copper ion plus inorganic copper complexes, which is valid if the pH and alkalinity of the waters used to develop a criteria are not different. On the basis of limited field data for the complexation of copper in Narragansett Bay water, we do not expect that significant differences in water quality criteria (WQC) would result if the criteria were to be based on free copper ion plus inorganic copper complexes rather than total copper concentrations. We examined the effect of speciation of copper in different waters as related to empirical or theoretically calculated water effect ratios (WER). We show that, on the basis of sound chemical principles, it would be expected that the most sensitive organisms would have the greatest WER. This prediction is confirmed by the empirical observations available. For insensitive organisms, knowledge of the concentration of ligand is sufficient to reasonably predict the WER. However, for the more sensitive organisms that give higher WERs, it is necessary to measure or calculate the speciation of copper to predict the WER. Use of predicted WERs may replace use of empirically derived WERs as is now part of regulatory guidance for derivation of site-specific WQC, if correspondence has been demonstrated.
#|Allen, H.E. 1993. The significance of trace metal speciation for water, sediment, and soil quality standards. Sci. Total Environ. (Suppl.): 23-45.
#|ALLEN-GIL,-SM, GILROY DJ, CURTIS LR.  AN ECOREGION APPROACH TO MERCURY BIOACCUMULATION BY FISH IN RESERVOIRS.  ARCHIVES OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY  28: (1) 61-68 JAN 1995.  Three Oregon reservoirs were evaluated for environmental parameters affecting mercury (Hg) dynamics and bioaccumulation in fish using an ecoregion approach. Ecoregions are distinguished by topography, geology, soil type and composition, and land use patterns. We examined: pH,dissolved oxygen, hardness, conductivity and concentration of Hg ([Hg]) in water; and complexing agent concentrations, organic content, inorganic and organic [Hg] in sediments; and [Hg] in three fish species. [Hg] in water was below detection (0.1 mu g/L) in most water samples from the three reservoirs; in samples above detection, we reasoned that Hg was predominantly in the particulate fraction. Hg in sediment was only found consistently in the inorganic state; organic mercury was below detection (0.2 ng/g) in 83% of sediment samples. Muscle [Hg] in fish over 4 years old was above the FDA limit of 1.0 mu g/g wet weight, and more than 90% of the Hg in all fish was organic mercury. [Hg] in lateral muscle was similar between smallmouth bass (Micropterus dolomieu) in Owyhee Reservoir and largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) in Cottage Grove Reservoir; rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) from Ochoco Reservoir had significantly lower levels of Hg. It is concluded that, although ecoregion parameters alone do not explain mercury dynamics, they may influence the methylation rate in areas of similar Hg loading rates.
#|Amato JR; Wayment DD; Little EE; Greenberg BM; DeLonay AJ.  Surfactant toxicity identification with a municipal wastewater.  ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND RISK ASSESSMENT: SEVENTH VOLUME, 1998, V1333, P272-283 (SERIES TITLE: AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR TESTING AND MATERIALS SPECIAL TECHNICAL PUBLICATION).  An acute toxicity identification evaluation following U.S. EPA guidelines was performed with a municipal wastewater to identify effluent components responsible for lethality of larval fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas) and Ceriodaphnia dubia. Ammonia toxicity, also present in the effluent, was not the object of this study. The study was designed to characterize effluent toxicity not due to ammonia. To minimize ammonia toxicity interferences, all Phase I testing was performed at pH's where ammonia toxicity would be negligible. Phase I toxicity characterization results indicated surfactants as the class of compounds causing acute non-ammonia toxicity for both test species. A distinct toxicant characteristic, specifically sublation at alkaline pH, was employed to track suspect surfactant loadings in the collection system. Concurrently, effluent surfactant residue testing determined nonionic surfactants were at adequate concentrations and were sufficiently toxic to cause the measured adverse effects. Influent surfactant toxicity was determined to be much less than in the final effluent indicating the treatment process was enhancing surfactant toxicity. Nonionic surfactants known to behave in this manner are nonylphenol ethoxylates. Degradation of nonylphenol ethoxylates to the more toxic degradate nonylphenol (NP) during wastewater treatment explained the increase in toxicity. Major loadings of NPE, particularly NPE9, were determined through both analytical measurements and toxicity tracking to be a regional hospital laundry facility and a tannery.  Substitution of NPE-based detergents to less toxic citrus-based products resulted in dramatic reduction of municipal effluent NPE concentrations and removal, of non-ammonia acute toxicity.
#|American Society of Agricultural Engineers. Design and construction of surface drainage systems on agricultural lands in humid areas. ASAE standards 1998: standards engineering practices data (No. 45): p.812-819, 1998. ANSI/ASAE EP302.4. American Society of Agricultural Engineers (ASAE) St Joseph, SA.
#|American Water Works Association.  Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 19th Edition: Section 9610 Detection of Fungi.  American Water Works Association, Denver, CO ; American Public Health Association, Washington, DC ; Water Environment Federation, Alexandria, VA., p 9-103:9-110, 19th Edition, 1995. An introduction to fungi discusses their significance (the association between fungal densities and organic loading suggests that fungi may be useful indicators of pollution); occurrence and survival (in potable water, recreational waters, and chlorinated water); and growth patterns and identification.  Three techniques are given for fungi. The pour plate technique is described in Section 9610B.  The spread plate technique (Section 9610C) is an alternative procedure for obtaining quantitative data on colony-forming units. The membrane filter technique (Section 9610D) is presented, but, except for comparisons of different manufacturers' membranes, no critical tests have been reported for membrane filters for fungal isolation efficiency. In addition, techniques are presented for yeast (Section 9610E), zoosporic fungi (Section 9610F), aquatic hyphomycetes (Section 9610G), and fungi pathogenic to humans (Section 9610H).
#|American Water Works Association.  Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 19th Edition: Section 8010 Introduction. American Water Works Association, Denver, CO ; American Public Health Association, Washington, DC ; Water Environment Federation, Alexandria, VA., p 8-1:8-26, 19th Edition, 1995. Toxicity tests are necessary in water pollution because chemical and physical tests alone are not sufficient to assess potential effectson aquatic biota. The methods given in Part 8000 allow measurement of biological responses to known and unknown concentrations of materials in both fresh and saline waters.  These toxicity tests are applicable to routine monitoring requirements as well as research needs. Section 8010B discussesterminology, including general terms, toxicity terms, biostimulation terms, solution renewal terms, flow terms, and terms used in discussing evaluation of results. Basic requirements for toxicity tests are described in Section 8010C. Guidelines for conducting toxicity tests are given in Section 8010D. Guidelines for preparing organisms for toxicity tests are given in Section 8010E; discussion covers selecting and collecting test organisms; handling, holding, and conditioning test organisms; culturing test organisms, and parasites and disease that may cause unexpected or unexplained mortalities in experimental and control animals.  Section 8010F discusses toxicity test systems, materials, and procedures.  Section 8010G discusses calculating, analyzing, and reporting results of toxicity tests. Section 8010H discusses interpreting and applying results of toxicity tests.
#|American Water Works Association.  Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 19th Edition: Section 5510 Aquatic Humic Substances. American Water Works Association, Denver, CO ; American Public Health Association, Washington, DC ; Water Environment Federation, Alexandria, VA., p 5-27:5-30, 19th Edition, 1995.  Aquatic humic substances (AHS) are heterogeneous, yellow to black, organic materials that include most of the naturally occurring dissolved organic matter in water. Aquatic humic substances have been shown to produce trihalomethanes (THMs) on chlorination and to affect the transport and fate of other organic and inorganic species through partition/adsorption, catalytic, and photolytic reactions. Two methods are given for determination of aquatic humic substances: the diethylaminoethyl (DEAE) method (Section 5510 B) and the XAD method (Section 5510 C). Guidelines for selection of the method are given in Section 5510 A, the introduction.
#|American Water Works Association.  Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 19th Edition: Section 8710 Microcrustaceans.  American Water Works Association, Denver, CO ; American Public Health Association, Washington, DC ; Water Environment Federation, Alexandria, VA., p 8-57, 19th Edition, 1995. Microcrustaceans are arthropods that have a very important role in aquatic ecosystems. These planktonic animals harvest smaller organisms and serve as food for many larger animals. The extreme diversity of microcrustaceans requires a complex classification scheme. The freshwater cladoceran, Daphnia, (Section 8711) commonly known as the water flea, is used as a freshwater toxicity test organism.
#|American Water Works Association.  Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 19th Edition: Section 8211 Duckweed (Proposed).  American Water Works Association, Denver, CO ; American Public Health Association, Washington, DC ; Water Environment Federation, Alexandria, VA., p 8-40:8-43, 19th Edition, 1995. Lemna minor L. is a small aquatic macrophyte widely distributed in quiescent freshwater and estuaries ranging from tropical to temperate zones. It is the most common species of the family Lemnaceae (also known as common duckweed) in the United States and many parts of the world. The common duckweed is an ideal organism for assessing aquatic phytotoxicity of many herbicides, industrial wastewaters, and other contaminants. The duckweed toxicity test is useful, especially for assaying the air-water interface where surface-active substances, oil and grease, and toxic organic compounds may be concentrated.  The test also is useful for assessing toxicity of metals, organic compounds, and industrial effluents. It is generally described as a simple, sensitive, and cost-effective test.
#|American Water Works Association.  Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 19th Edition: Section 10010 Introduction.  American Water Works Association, Denver, CO ; American Public Health.  Association, Washington, DC ; Water Environment Federation, Alexandria, VA., p 10-1:10-2, 19th Edition, 1995.  Water quality affects the abundance, species composition, stability, productivity, and physiological condition of indigenous populations of aquatic organisms. Therefore, the nature and health of the aquatic communities is an expression of the quality of the water. Biological methods used for assessing water quality include the collection, counting, and identification of aquatic organisms; biomass measurements; measurements of metabolic activity rates; measurements of the toxicity, bioconcentrations, and bioaccumulation of pollutants; and processing and interpretation of biological data. This section defines the communities of aquatic organisms that are considered in Part 10000, including plankton, periphyton, macrophyton, macroinvertebrates, fish, and amphibians.
#|American Water Works Association.  Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 19th Edition: Section 8910 Fish.  American Water Works Association, Denver, CO ; American Public Health Association, Washington, DC ; Water Environment Federation, Alexandria, VA., p 8-78:8-90, 19th Edition, 1995.  Fish have been widely regarded as good test species for this assessment of aquatic toxicity.  Section 8910 B discusses fish selection and preparation and Section 8910 C discusses test procedures.
#|American Water Works Association.  Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 19th Edition: Section 8720 Macrocrustaceans.  American Water Works Association, Denver, CO ; American Public Health Association, Washington, DC ; Water Environment Federation, Alexandria, VA., p 8-61:8-73, 19th Edition, 1995. Toxicity testing methods for the microcrustaceans are given in Sections 8710 and 8711. Crustaceans are relevant for determining the toxicity of pesticides in the aquatic environment because of their phylogenic relationship to the insects for whose control many pesticides have been developed.  This section contains lengthy discussions on selecting and preparing test species and conducting the toxicity tests.
#|American Water Works Association.  Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 1994 Supplement to the 18th Edition: Section 8711 Daphnia.  American Water Works Association, Denver, CO ; American Public Health Association, Washington, DC ; Water Environment Federation, Alexandria, VA., p 47-50, 18th Edition Supplement, 1994.  Daphnia sp. are small freshwater crustaceans. They have been used for many years to assess the acute and chronic effects of single chemicals and complex mixtures.  Daphnia are widely available from many laboratories and commercial biological supply houses. Only 20 to 30 organisms are needed to start a culture. Some biologists prefer D. pulex to D. magna because it is more widely distributed and easier to culture. However, D. magna neonates (first instar) are larger and somewhat easier to use. This method lists the variables for culturing organisms including: water supply; food and feeding; temperature; lighting; culture vessels; air supply; and culture maintenance.
#|American Water Works Association.  Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 19th Edition: Section 10200 Plankton.  American Water Works Association, Denver, CO ; American Public Health Association, Washington, DC ; Water Environment Federation, Alexandria, VA., p 10-2:10-29, 19th Edition, 1995. The term "plankton" refers to those microscopic aquatic forms having little or no resistance to currents and living free-floating and suspended in natural waters.  Planktonic plants, "phytoplankton," and planktonic animals, "zooplankton," are covered in this section.  Other organisms occurring in the same environment are dealt with elsewhere: zoosporic fungi in Section 9610F; aquatic hyphomycetes in Section 9610G; and bacteria in Part 9000.  Discussed in this section are sampling collection, including specific instructions for gathering samples; concentration techniques; guidelines for preparing slide mounts for various types of plankton; discussion of various types of microscopes and calibration. Counting techniques are given for phytoplankton (Section 10200F) and zooplankton (Section 10200G).  Five methods for determining chlorophyll are given in Section 10200H.  Various methods of estimating or determining biomass are given in Section 10200I.  Metabolic rate measurements are discussed in Section 10200J.
#|American Water Works Association.  Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 19th Edition: Section 10300 Periphyton.  American Water Works Association, Denver, CO ; American Public Health Association, Washington, DC ; Water Environment Federation, Alexandria, VA., p 10-30:10-43, 19th Edition, 1995. Microorganisms growing on stones, sticks, aquatic macrophytes, and other submerged surfaces are useful in assessing the effects of pollutants on lakes, streams, and estuaries. Included in this group of organisms, here designated periphyton, are the zoogleal and filamentous bacteria, attached protozoa, rotifers, and algae, and the free-living microorganisms that swim, creep, or lodge among the attached forms. Sample collection (Section 10300B) involves station selection, sample collection, and preservation. Six methods of sample analysis are given (Section 10300C). Estimating productivity is discussed in Section 10300D. Section 10300E is devoted to interpreting and reporting results.
#|American Water Works Association.  Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 19th Edition: Section 8750 Aquatic Insects.  American Water Works Association, Denver, CO ; American Public Health Association, Washington, DC ; Water Environment Federation, Alexandria, VA., p 8-74:8-77, 19th Edition, 1995.  Aquatic insects are important components of lake and stream biota. Many aquatic insects are more sensitive to pollutants than are fish. Procedures using aquatic insects have been developed for determining acceptable environmental conditions or concentrations of toxicants. Most studies have been short-term tests, but the procedures areavailable for long-term tests.  This section discusses selecting and preparing test organisms, toxicity test procedures, and data evaluation.
#|American Water Works Association.  Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 19th edition: Section 4500-NH3 Nitrogen (Ammonia) American Water Works Association, Denver, CO ; American Public Health Association, Washington, DC ; Water Environment Federation, Alexandria, VA., p 4-75:4-82, 19th Edition, 1995.  The two major factors that influence selection of the method to determine ammonia are concentration and presence of interferences. In general, direct manual determination of low concentrations of ammonia is confined to drinking waters, clean surface or groundwater, and good-quality nitrified wastewater effluent.  In other instances, and where interferences arepresent and great precision is necessary, a preliminary distillation step is required.  This distillation step is described.  For high ammonia concentrations a distillation and titration technique is preferred. Following the distillation step, a number of methods are described, including:  a titrimetric method, an ammonia-selective electrode method, an ammonia-selective electrode method using known addition, a phenate method, and an automated version of the phenate method. Interferences, storage of samples, a brief discussion of the advantages of each method precede the detailed instructions for distillation and each standard method.
#|Anderholm,-S.K.; Radell,-M.J.; Richey,-S.F.  Water-quality assessment of the Rio Grande Valley study unit, Colorado, New Mexico, and Texas analysis of selected nutrient, suspended-sediment, and pesticide data. 1994. 203 pp. Water Resources Investigations Report: 94-4061. Surface- and ground-water quality data for selected nutrients, suspended sediment, and pesticides in the Rio Grande Valley study unit, which includes 47,500 square miles in Colorado, New Mexico, and Texas, are summarized and presented in graphical and tabular formats. Land use is primarily in four categories: rangeland (58 percent), forest land (36 percent), agricultural land (4 percent), and urban (1 percent). Major uses of water are irrigation, public supply, and industrial. Data from surface-water stations on the Rio Grande show that nutrient concentrations are affected by urban impacts and interspersed agriculture along the river, as evidenced by generally larger concentrations downstream from Albuquerque, New Mexico. Suspended-sediment concentrations in the Rio Grande are affected by the inflow of perennial tributaries, the flushing of ephemeral streams and arroyos, steep gradients in various reaches of the river, and settling in reservoirs. Nitrate concentrations in water from wells in all areas rarely exceeded 10 milligrams per liter and most were less than 2 milligrams per liter. Comparison of nitrate concentrations among all land uses and well depths indicates that the largest median nitrate concentration is associated with rangeland and shallow depths. Orthophosphate concentrations in water from most wells sampled are less than 0.2 milligram per liter and ammonia concentrations are less than 0.03 milligram per liter, indicating that orthophosphate and ammonia concentrations are not a major problem in the study area. Diazinon, an organophosphorus insecticide, was the most frequently detected pesticide in surface water and the only pesticide detected in ground water. About 98 percent of the pesticide analyses of surface water were below the analytical detection limit.
#|Anderson, B S ; Hunt, J W ; McNulty, H R ; Turpen, S L ; Martin, M.  Off-season spawning and factors influencing toxicity test development with topsmelt Atherinops affinis. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY vol. 13, no. 3, pp. 479-485, 1994.  Three separate groups of adult topsmelt (Atherinops affinis) were spawned in rotation in laboratory culture over a two-year period to provide larvae for toxicity tests. Size and viability of embryos and larvae produced during the normal summer spawning period (May-August) were compared to those produced during the off season (October-April). Mean embryo viability was relatively high throughout the study (82%), whereas size of larvae varied. Larval size was significantly larger during the summer spawning period than in winter. A 7-d growth and survival toxicity test protocol was developed for topsmelt larvae.  Variability of the protocol was assessed over a 12-month period using copper chloride as a reference toxicant. Precision of 12 toxicity tests using copper was high the intralaboratory C.V. for copper LC50s was 19%. The 7-d larval protocol also gave comparable results in two interlaboratory toxicity tests using copper and complex effluent. This study demonstrates that topsmelt may be spawned throughout the year to provide larvae for toxicity tests and that topsmelt larvae have comparable sensitivity to other larval fishes commonly used in toxicity testing.
#|Andren AW; Bober TW.  Argentum International Conference Proceedings (1st): Transport, Fate and Effects of Silver in the Environment.  Held in Madison, Wisconsin on August 8-10, 1993.  Metal Speciation in Aquatic and Terrestrial Systems; Environmental Cycling of Silver; Toxicity of Metals to Aquatic Organisms; Food Chain Transfer of Metals in the Aquatic and Terrestrial Environment; Environmental Analytical Chemistry of Silver; Panel Discussion; Poster Session; and Participants. Technical rept.
#|Andren AW; Bober TW.  Argentum International Conference Proceedings (2nd): Transport, Fate and Effects of Silver in the Environment.  Held in Madison, Wisconsin on September 11-14, 1994.  Metal Speciation in Aquatic and Terrestrial Systems; Environmental Cycling of Silver; Toxicity of Metals to Aquatic Organisms; Food Chain Transfer of Metals in the Aquatic and Terrestrial Environment; Environmental Analytical Chemistry of Silver; Panel Discussion; Poster Session; and Participants. Technical rept.
#|Andren AW; Bober TW.  Argentum International Conference Proceedings (3rd): Transport, Fate and Effects of Silver in the Environment. Held in Washington, DC. on August 6-9, 1995.  Argentum III; Behavior of Silver in the Water Column; Environmental Cycling, Distribution, and Analytical Chemistry; Behavior of Silver in Sediments; Poster Session; and Participants.
#|Andren, A W ; Bober, TW.  The 4th international conference proceedings: Transport, fate and effects of silver in the environment.  Wisconsin Univ., Madison (USA). REPORT NUMBER:  WISCU-W-96-001. 256 pp, 1996.  Int. Conf. Transport, Fate and Effects of Silver in the Environment.  Madison, WI (USA), 1996 Aug 25-28.  In the five years since the Argentum conferences were first conceived, great strides have been made in our collective worldwide understanding of silver behavior. Some past laboratory studies had been faulted because they were designed without considering all the variables that truly influence the metal's behavior in nature. When attempts were made to extrapolate results from such laboratory simulations to the more complex natural environment, often the data did not seem to fit with actual tests and measurements made in the field.  Of particular benefit has been the gathering together of scientists from various disciplines who can critique each other's project proposals and date from their own viewpoint, thus bringing valuable cross-disciplinary insight to efforts that otherwise might have been conducted strictly within the confines of a single discipline. This wholistic approach produces better experimental designs that yield more universally acceptable information, often at lower cost and without need to engage in peripheral supporting studies. It has helped eliminate the confusion that resulted from past conflicting data on silver, which made it difficult to adopt reasonable environmental standards. The advent of the new "clean" sampling and monitoring procedures has also greatly revised past thinking regarding ambient concentrations of trace metals in the environment. These successes over the past few years have resulted in better and more reasonable dialogue between researchers, regulators and the regulated community. We hope to continue that process through this fourth conference.
#|ANTLE JA; FINCH RA; BURTON DT; FORT DJ; DAWSON DA; LINDER G; RAYBURN JR; HULL M; KUMSHERKING M; GAUDETHULL AM; TURLEY SD.  FETAX INTERLABORATORY VALIDATION-STUDY - PHASE-III, PART 1 TESTING.  JOURNAL OF APPLIED TOXICOLOGY, 1996, V16, N6 (NOV-DEC), P517-528.  The Frog Embryo Teratogenesis Assay-Xenopus (FETAX) is a 96-h whole embryo developmental toxicity screening assay that can be used in ecotoxicology and in detecting mammalian developmental toxicants when an in vitro metabolic activation system is employed, A standardized American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) guide for the conduct of FETAX has been published, along with a companion atlas that aids in embryo staging and identifying malformations, As part of the ASTM process, a three-phase interlaboratory validation study was undertaken to evaluate the repeatability and reliability of FETAX, Seven different participants collaborated in the study, In Phase I, FETAX proved to be more repeatable and reliable than many bioassays, However, some excessive variation was observed in a few laboratories, An initial lack of assay experience by some technicians caused variation, Phase II showed far less intra- and interlaboratory variability than Phase I, Non-teratogens showed the most consistent results, while more variability was observed for the two teratogens tested, Interlaboratory coefficient of variation values for all endpoints ranged from 7.3 to 54.7, Phase III-Part 1, using coded samples and test concentration ranges selected by each laboratory, showed results similar to Phase I, Analysis of the causes of variation suggested that some technicians judged some embryos to be malformed while others consistently judged similar embryos as normal, Concentration ranges tested by some of the laboratories varied greatly and a new protocol for selecting concentrations for initial testing was written to reduce variation from this source, Testing to date suggests that FETAX is as repeatable and reliable as other standard bioassays.
#|Apodaca,-L.E.; Driver,-N.E.; Stephens,-V.C.; Spahr,-N.E.  Environmental setting and implications on water quality, Upper Colorado River Basin, Colorado and Utah. 33 pp.  Water-Resources Investigations Report: 95-4263. The Upper Colorado River Basin in Colorado and Utah is 1 of 60 study units selected for water-quality assessment as part of the U,S. Geological Survey's National Water-Quality Assessment program, which began full implementation in 1991. Understanding the environmental setting of the Upper Colorado River Basin study unit is important in evaluating water-quality issues in the basin. Natural and human factors that affect water quality in the basin are presented, including an overview of the physiography, climatic conditions, general geology and soils, ecoregions, population, land use, water management and use, hydrologic characteristics, and, to the extent possible, aquatic biology. These factors have substantial implications on water-quality conditions in the basin. For example, high concentrations of dissolved solids and selenium are present in the natural background water conditions of surface and ground water in parts of the basin. In addition, mining, urban, and agricultural land and water uses result in the presence of certain constituents in the surface and ground water of the basin that can detrimentally affect water quality. The environmental setting of the study unit provides a framework of the basin characteristics, which is important in the design of integrated studies of surface water, ground water, and biology.
#|Approved and working criteria for water quality.  1995.  British Columbia.  Water Quality Branch, Victoria.  50p.The British Columbia Water Quality Branch is developing province-wide water quality criteria for use in assessing water quality data and preparing site-specific water quality objectives. These criteria are being developed substance by substance, beginning with those most urgently needed for water quality assessments and objectives. The tables comprising this report contain both working criteria awaiting approval and criteria approved by BC Environment. Substances covered by the criteria include particulates, nutrients, cyanide, nitrogen, metals, bacteria, chlorine, fluoride, ammonia in saltwater, and organic compounds, such as chlorophenols and polychlorinated biphenyls.
#|Arnett, M. W.; Karapatakis, L. K.; Mamatey, A. R.  Savannah River Site environmental report for 1993.  Westinghouse Savannah River, Aiken, SC, United States, 1994, 276 p. REPORT NO.: WSRC-TR-94-075.  Savannah River Site (SRS) conducts effluent monitoring and environmental surveillance to ensure the safety of the public and the well-being of the environment. DOE Order 5400,1, "General Environmental Protection Program", requires the submission of an environmental report that documents the impact of facility operations on the environment and on public health. SRS has had an extensive environmental surveillance program in place since 1951 (before site startup). At that time, data generated by the on-site surveillance program were reported in site documents. Beginning in 1959, data from off-site environmental monitoring activities were presented in reports issued for public dissemination.  Separate reporting of SRS's on- and off-site environmental monitoring activities continued until 1985, when data from both surveillance programs were merged into a single public document. The Savannah River Site Environmental Report for 1993 is an overview of effluent monitoring and environmental surveillance activities conducted on and in the vicinity of SRS from January 1 through December 31, 1993. For complete program descriptions, consult the "SRS Environmental Monitoring Plan" (WSRC-3Ql-2-1000). It documents the rationale and design criteria for the monitoring program, the frequency of monitoring and analysis, the specific analytical and sampling procedures, and the quality assurance requirements.
#|Assmuth, T. W., & Penttila, S. V.  1995.  Characteristics, Determinants and Interpretations of Acute Lethality.  Aquat Toxicol v31, n2, p125(17).  At 35 old and active municipal and industrial mixed-waste disposal sites in Finland, leachates were collected, and acute lethality was determined using Daphnia magna. Both 24-h screening tests and 48-h standard tests were used. Of the 343 tested leachate samples, 33% were at least slightly toxic in the screening tests. In 48-h tests using the samples found to cause lethality, the range of median survival times ranged 0.35-111 h. There were significant correlations between toxicity measures and chemical water-quality criteria, particularly for chlorides, ammonia, and light metals. Screening-test lethality correlated more strongly with the chemical criteria than did the standard-test lethality.
#|Atencio, B.P.  Department of Energy, Richland, WA. Richland Operations Office.  State Waste Discharge Permit application: 200-E Powerhouse Ash Pit. Contract Number: DOE-RL-94-25.  NTIS/DE94015379, 129p.  As part of the Hanford Federal Facility Agreement and Consent Order negotiations, the US Department and Energy, Richland Operations Office, the US Environmental Protection Agency, and the Washington State Department of Ecology agreed that liquid effluent discharges to the ground on the Hanford Site which affect groundwater or have the potential to affect groundwater would be subject to permitting under the structure of Chapter 173-216 (or 173-218 where applicable) of the Washington Administrative Code, the State Waste Discharge Permit Program. This document constitutes the State Waste Discharge Permit application for the 200-E Powerhouse Ash Pit. The 200-E Powerhouse Ash Waste Water discharges to the 200-E Powerhouse Ash Pit via dedicated pipelines. The 200-E Ash Waste Water is the only discharge to the 200-E Powerhouse Ash Pit.  The 200-E Powerhouse is a steam generation facility consisting of a coal-handling and preparation section and boilers.
#|Atere-Roberts, S.O.; Koon, J.H.  Meetingself-monitoring requirements for stormwater discharges from industrial facilities.  IND. WASTEWATER  VOL. 1, NO. 1, pp. 38-50, 1993. EPA on Sept 9 and Sept. 25, 1992, issued final regulations governing general NPDES permits for stormwater discharge associated with industrial activities in non-delegated states and territories.  As part of these requirements, certain facilities must monitor their stormwater discharges annually or semiannually, depending on their industrial category, and report the results regularly to EPA or the appropriate state agency.  Specifically, the self-monitoring requirements call for facilities to collect two types of samples during a storm that produces more than 0.1inches of precipitation and that occurs at least 72 hours after the previous measurable storm.
#|Ayoub George M; Koopman Ben; Bitton Gabriel(a); Riedesel Kelly.  Heavy metal detoxification by trimercapto-s-triazine (TMT) as evaluated by a bacterial enzyme assay.  Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 14 (2):p193-196 1995.  We compared trimercapto-s-triazine (TMT) to ethylenediaminetetraacetate (EDTA) for detoxification of five selected heavy metals as part of an effluent fractionation procedure. Toxicity was assessed using a microbial microplate assay, based on the MetPAD test kit. The affinity of TMT to four of the metals (Cd, Cu, Hg, Ph) was on the same order of magnitude as EDTA, as indicated by minimum mole ratios of ligand to metal required for detoxification. The TMT was ineffective against Zn. Both TMT and EDTA were toxic (causing more than 30% inhibition) to the test bacterial enzyme at concentrations of 3,000 mu-M or greater. The range of TMT concentrations that detoxified the metals was broader than that of EDTA. Stimulation of enzyme activity by EDTA could complicate interpretation of test data, a problem not shared by TMT.
#|BAILEY HC, DIGIORGIO C, KROLL K, MILLER JL, HINTON DE, & STARRETT G. (1996). DEVELOPMENT OF PROCEDURES FOR IDENTIFYING PESTICIDE TOXICITY IN AMBIENT WATERS - CARBOFURAN, DIAZINON, CHLORPYRIFOS.  ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY, V15, N6, P837-845. The responses of carbofuran, diazinon, and chlorpyrifos to standard acute toxicity identification evaluation (TlE) procedures were characterized. The test species was Ceriodaphnia dubia. The TIE procedures included solid-phase extraction, recovery in methanol eluates, hydrolysis under acid and base conditions, and retention in specific methanol/water fractions. In addition, the effect of the metabolic inhibitor, piperonyl butoxide, on the toxicity of each of the pesticides was determined. Diazinon degraded quickly under acid conditions, whereas carbofuran degraded under base conditions. In both cases, concentrations were reduced to nontoxic levels within 6 h. Conversely, acidic or basic conditions were not effective in reducing the concentration of chlorpyrifos over the same time period. Solid- phase extraction removed at: least 95% of diazinon and carbofuran from solution, but was less effective with chlorpyrifos. All three pesticides eluted separately in characteristic methanol/water fractions. Piperonyl butoxide ameliorated the toxicity of diazinon and chlorpyrifos, but not carbofuran. Up to 1.5% methanol did not interfere with the protective action of piperonyl butoxide. Case studies in which these techniques were applied to ambient water samples are also described.
#|Bailey, B. Surviving the stormwater permit process.  WATER ENVIRONMENT AND TECHNOLOGY vol. 5, no. 7, pp. 70-77, 1993. Since EPA published regulations for stormwater discharge permits, industrial facilities and municipalities have had to consider new and timely methods for compliance. In essence, the regulations require both industries and municipalities to develop stormwater controls similar to those currently required for point source discharges, solids, and process wastewater discharges. National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit applicants must submit a detailed stormwater pollution prevention plan.
#|Bailey, H C ; Miller, J L ; Miller, M J ; Dhaliwal, B S.  Application of toxicity identification procedures to the echinoderm fertilization assay to identify toxicity in a municipal effluent.  ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY vol. 14, no. 12, pp. 2181-2186, 1995.  Toxicity was detected in a municipal effluent with the echinoderm fertilization assay. Dendraster excentricus appeared more sensitive to the effluent than did Strongylocentrotus purpuratus.  A Phase 1 toxicity identification evaluation (TIE) was conducted using procedures adapted to the echinoderm fertilization bioassay. The Phase 1 TIE implicated cationic metal as the cause of toxicity, and follow-up investigations suggested that copper was the primary cation responsible. As part of the TIE, bioassay were conducted on ammonia and several cations. No-observable-effect concentrations for D. excentricus were >13.4  mu g/L (Ag), >9.4  mu g/L (Cd), 3.8 to 13.1  mu g/L (Cu), >0.7  mu g/L (Hg), 10 mg/L (N, as total ammonia). The data also suggested that interspecific differences in sensitivity to copper and ammonia exist between Dendraster excentricus and Strongylocentrotus purpuratus.
#|Bailey,-H.C.; Young,-L.  A comparison of the results of freshwater aquatic toxicity testing of pulp and paper mill effluents. FOREST INDUSTRY WASTEWATER V. SELECTED PROCEEDINGS OF THE 5TH IAWQ INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON FOREST INDUSTRY WASTEWATERS, HELD IN VANCOUVER, BC, CANADA, 10-13 JUNE 1996. Hall,-E.R.; Colodey,-A.G. (eds.)  1997 pp. 305-313.  Freshwater short-term chronic toxicity tests were conducted quarterly on samples from pulp and paper mills under Cycle I of Canada's Environmental Effects Monitoring program. The toxicity tests included the 7-day Ceriodaphnia dubia partial life-cycle test for survival and reproduction, the 7-day rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) embryo viability test, and the 72-hr Selenastrum capricornutum algal growth inhibition test. All three tests were performed on a routine basis with few failures. The responses of the different species were generally not correlated, suggesting that they responded to different constituents in the effluents. On a statistical basis, the algal test exhibited the greatest sensitivity, followed by the trout embryo and Ceriodaphnia tests. In general, the no-observable effect concentrations (NOECs) were lower than the corresponding IC25 estimates. Due to variability between samples from each mill, it was not possible to distinguish between different mill production processes with respect to their effect on toxicity. In general, mills that treated their effluent using aerated stabilization basins exhibited less toxicity than other treatment types. However, this observation is preliminary and also affected by variability in test results and limited sample size. Overall, the results suggest that toxicity tests have a useful role in identifying toxicity in these effluents and that Toxicity Identification Evaluations should be conducted to identify the cause of toxicity so that treatment and/or source control can be initiated as appropriate.
#|Baillieul,-M.; Bervoets,-L.; Blust,-R.; De-Boeck,-G. Assessment of the toxicity of an industrial effluent with a two-generation reproduction test using Daphnia magna. PROCEEDINGS OF THE SECOND EUROPEAN CONFERENCE ON ECOTOXICOLOGY. Sloof,-W.; de-Kruijf,-H. (eds.)  1993 pp. 1159-1164. The toxicity of an industrial effluent and solutions of its main component, CaCl sub(2) was assessed with acute and chronic toxicity tests with Daphnia magna. EC sub(50) values were not different until after 96 h when the effluent proved more toxic than the pure CaCl sub(2). In the first generation of the chronic tests, reproduction was decreased at the same threshold chloride concentration for both the pure CaCl sub(2) and the effluent. In the second generation, reproduction returned to control levels in all tested CaCl sub(2) concentrations. The effluent, however, decreased the reproduction even at a dilution corresponding to one-tenth of the 96-h EC sub(50), a dilution at which all effluent components are within European water quality standards. This difference in chronic toxicity between the effluent and the CaCl sub(2) solutions could not have been foreseen with 48 h acute tests or one-generation reproduction tests, which are the standard ecotoxicological testing procedures.
#|BALK F; OKKERMAN PC; VANHELMOND CAM; NOPPERT F; VANDERPUTTE I.  BIOLOGICAL EARLY WARNING SYSTEMS FOR SURFACE WATER AND INDUSTRIAL EFFLUENTS.  WATER SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, 1994, V29, N3, P211-213.  Within the framework of the International Rhine Action Programme and the EC ACE-Programme in the field of the environment (regulation EC.224/87) the sensitivity and reliability of biological early warning systems are being tested. The effectiveness of these systems for continuous water quality monitoring is being assessed, using surface water and industrial effluents. The systems tested are a fish and a waterflea early warning system. From the results it is concluded that both types of biological early warning systems in combination with physico-chemical monitoring increase the effectiveness of monitoring pollution levels in surface water. Fish early warning systems can be important tools in reducing water pollution by industries.
#|Balthis, W. L., Voit, E. O., & Meaburn, G. M. Setting prediction limits for mercury concentrations in fish having high bioaccumulation potential.  ENVIRONMETRICS,1996 vol. 7, no. 4, pp. 429-439. The potential health risks associated with the consumption of contaminated fish have long been recognized by public health officials as cause for concern, and in the USA many states have developed strategies for issuing fish consumption advisories. The methods and criteria for establishing such advisories vary widely among the states, however, and the advice given to anglers may not be consistent between neighbouring states, even regarding the same body of water. Fish contaminant monitoring data are often used as the basis for advisories, but few methods are available for the quantification and distributional characterization of contaminant levels in fish. Log-normality of pollutant concentrations (i.e. normality of the logarithm of pollutant concentrations) is a common assumption, yet statistical tests of normality do not always confirm this assumption. An alternative to the log-normal distribution is the S-distribution, which has been shown to approximate many statistical distributions with high accuracy, and often results in improved fit over the log-normal. In this paper we evaluate the performance of the S-distribution in characterizing contaminant concentrations, and compare the results to those obtained using the log-normal distribution. A method based on trends in mercury distribution parameters across length classes is presented and used to obtain 95 per-cent prediction limits for mercury concentrations in king mackerel (Scomberomorus cavalla). It is shown that this method gives narrower prediction limits compared to those obtained using standard regression techniques.
#|Bankey, L A ; Van Veld, P A ; Borton, D L ; LaFleur, L ; Stegeman, J J.  Responses of cytochrome P4501A in freshwater fish exposed to bleached kraft mill effluent in experimental stream channels.  CANADIAN JOURNAL OF FISHERIES AND AQUATIC SCIENCES vol. 52, no. 3, pp., 439-447, 1995.  Cytochrome P4501A induction was used to evaluate exposure of fish to bleached kraft mill effluent in experimental stream channels.  Immunodetectable P4501A and associated ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase (EROD) activity were elevated in largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) and channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) throughout 263 days of exposure to 8% and 4% effluent from a mill that used 70% chlorine dioxide substitution for chlorine in the pulp bleaching process. In largemouth bass, P4501A was elevated as high as 55-fold over control fish. Large temporal and species variations were observed in enzyme levels and activity. Levels of chlorinated organic compounds present in effluent also varied throughout exposures. However, there was no apparent relationship between P4501A and any of those compounds measured. P4501A and EROD in channel catfish declined to control levels within seven days after transfer of fish to clean water or after terminating introduction of effluent into the channels. In another exposure, induction was observed in largemouth bass at 4 and 12% effluent after the mill began using oxygen in the delignification process and 100% substitution of chlorine dioxide for chlorine.
#|BANTLE JA, FINCH RA, BURTON DT, FORT DJ, DAWSON DA, LINDER G, RAYBURN JR, HULL M, KUMSHERKING M, GAUDETHULL AM, & TURLEY SD. (1996).  FETAX INTERLABORATORY VALIDATION-STUDY - PHASE-III, PART 1 TESTING.  JOURNAL OF APPLIED TOXICOLOGY, V16, N6, P517-528. The Frog Embryo Teratogenesis Assay-Xenopus (FETAX) is a 96-h whole embryo developmental toxicity screening assay that can be used in ecotoxicology and in detecting mammalian developmental toxicants when an in vitro metabolic activation system is employed, A standardized American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) guide for the conduct of FETAX has been published, along with a companion atlas that aids in embryo staging and identifying malformations, As part of the ASTM process, a three-phase interlaboratory validation study was undertaken to evaluate the repeatability and reliability of FETAX, Seven different participants collaborated in the study, In Phase I, FETAX proved to be more repeatable and reliable than many bioassays, However, some excessive variation was observed in a few laboratories, An initial lack of assay experience by some technicians caused variation, Phase II showed far less intra- and interlaboratory variability than Phase I, Non-teratogens showed the most consistent results, while more variability was observed for the two teratogens tested, Interlaboratory coefficient of variation values for all endpoints ranged from 7.3 to 54.7, Phase III-Part 1, using coded samples and test concentration ranges selected by each laboratory, showed results similar to Phase I, Analysis of the causes of variation suggested that some technicians judged some embryos to be malformed while others consistently judged similar embryos as normal, Concentration ranges tested by some of the laboratories varied greatly and a new protocol for selecting concentrations for initial testing was written to reduce variation from this source, Testing to date suggests that FETAX is as repeatable and reliable as other standard bioassays.
#|Barbour MT, Gerritsen J, Griffith GE, Frydenborg R, McCarron E, White JS, Bastian ML A.  A framework for biological criteria for Florida streams using benthic macroinvertebrates. JOURNAL OF THE NORTH AMERICAN BENTHOLOGICAL SOCIETY 15: (2) 185-211 JUN 1996.  Our study developed an approach to biological assessment that would document effects of pollution on benthic macroinvertebrate assemblages in Florida streams. The primary objectives were: (1) to classify streams for assessment of benthic assemblages and (2) to develop biological metrics and aggregated indices for biocriteria and assessment. Reference sites were selectedthroughout Florida (with the exception of the southernmost area, known as the Southern Florida Coastal Plain ecoregion) and sampled by biologists from the Florida Department of Environmental Protection.These sites were sampled during a summer index period (1 July through 30 September) from 1992 through 1994. Streams were classified using invertebrate species composition. Three geographic stream classes (bioregions) that were based on aggregations of subecoregions were determined from this analysis: the panhandle, peninsular Florida, and the northeastern portion of Florida. Stream types based on water source (i.e., calcareous or non-calcareous) were not useful as stream classes. From an initial suite of 32 macroinvertebrate metrics, 8 metrics were useful in composing the Stream Condition Index (SCI) for Florida for all 3 bioregions. Scores (5, 3, or 1) were developed for these metrics to allow for aggregation into an index. Aggregating the metrics into the SCT provided a biocriterion that improved discrimination between impaired and unimpaired sites over use of individual metrics.
#|BARBOUR MT.  EXPERIMENTAL-DESIGN AND CONTROL - KEYS TO REFINING RAPID BIOASSESSMENT METRICS - REPLY.  ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY  12: (1) 2-4 JAN 1993.
#|Barbour-MT; Plafkin-JL; Bradley-BP; Graves-CG; Wisseman-RW.  Evaluation of EPA's rapid bioassessment benthic metrics: metric redundancy and variability among reference stream sites. Environmental-Toxicology-and-Chemistry. 1992, 11: 4, 437-449.  The data analysis scheme used in the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA's) rapid bioassessment protocols (RBPs) integrates several community, population and functional parameters (or metrics) into a single assessment of biological condition. A reference data base of macroinvertebrate data obtained from 10 ecoregions in Oregon, Colorado and Kentucky, USA, was used to evaluate the appropriateness and variability of the benthic metrics and the similarities of results among ecoregions. Several statistical procedures, including principal component analysis, correlation coefficient, analysis of variance and stepwise discriminant analysis, were used to test the efficacy of 17 community metrics. A general separation between the mountain ecoregions and the valley/plains ecoregions was determined to exist for the metrics. 2 of the original 8 metrics described in the EPA's RBPs for benthic macroinvertebrates were found to be highly variable and unreliable as measures of biological conditions in some ecoregions. 11 metrics were determined as being valuable in discriminating between montane and valley/plains groupings of ecoregions.
#|Barron, M G ; Nardo, C ; Yurk, J J. Bioavailability of PCBs in channel catfish exposed to a treated municipal effluent.  ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGY vol. 17, no. 5, pp. 557-560, 1996.  This study evaluated the use of fish to assess the bioavailability of waste water discharges of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) which were below the analytical detection limit in water. PCBs were quantified in channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) exposed under controlled conditions to a treated municipal effluent and Detroit River (Michigan, U.S.A.) water for 28 days. PCBs were bioaccumulated in channel catfish exposed to effluent (16.4 to 16.7 mu g/ Kappa g), but not in fish exposed to Detroit River water. The results indicate that channel catfish can be used to assess the bioavailability of PCBs in waste water discharges.
#|Barros, M. C., Mendo, M. J. M., & Negrao, F. C. R.  1995.  Surface Water Quality in Portugal During a Drought Period.  Sci Total Environ v171, n1-3, p69(8). The Water Quality Network in Portugal was used to assess surface water quality during a drought period. A total of 42 sampling stations were selected, which were most representative of the major river basins in the country. Results are presented from the study of the possible influence of very low stored volumes in 14 of the selected reservoirs. The parameters analyzed were temperature, pH, conductivity, total suspended solids, DO, COD, BOD, ammonia, nitrates, phosphates, and fecal coliforms. Results indicated that was quality was good to fair in the reservoirs from the north and in those from the south where important point sources did not exist. Statistical analysis did not highlight any significant relationships between concentrations and time or storage volume.
#|Barton, B A ; Taylor, B R.  Oxygen requirements of fishes in northern Alberta rivers with a general review of the adverse effects of low dissolved oxygen.  WATER QUAL. RES. J. CANADA vol. 31, no. 2, pp. 361-409, 1996.  Sublethal responses of fish to low dissolved oxygen (DO) include changes in cardiac function, increased respiratory and metabolic activity, alterations in blood chemistry, mobilization of anaerobic energy pathways, upset in acid-base balance, reduced growth and decreased swimming capacity. Lowered final temperature preferenda and avoiding low DO are behavioral responses, and under extreme conditions, fish may take advantage of oxygen-rich surface film water. Low DO can affect invertebrate communities by causing selective mortality or inducing drift, which may affect fish production. The presence of pollutants can exacerbate responses to low DO with the effect of raising the threshold DO at which such responses occur. Based on published literature, northern Alberta riverine fishes are grouped into four categories of acute lethal sensitivity. However, chronic DO requirements are far more important to long-term maintenance of healthy fish communities than acute tolerances. Defining chronic DO criteria for northern fishes is complicated by long periods of winter ice cover, possible presence of pulp mill effluent, and lack of information on many regional species. Although previously recommended criteria should provide a reasonable level of protection for fish, any reduction in DO below saturation will cause some production impairment within the aquatic community.(DBO)
#|Bass,-J.A.B.; Pinder,-L.C.V.; Leach,-D.V. Temporal and spatial variation in zooplankton populations in the River Great Ouse: An ephemeral food resource for larval and juvenile fish. REGUL.-RIVERS-RES.-MANAGE. 1997  vol. 13, no. 3, pp. 245-258.  The spatial and temporal dynamics of zooplankton populations were investigated in a highly engineered and regulated section of the River Great Ouse from 1989 to 1993. In addition to main river sites some secondary channels (back channels) and a marina were also included in the study. At main river sites Rotifera were strongly dominant, with peak numbers of 2000 1 super(-1) to more than 18000 1 super(-1), corresponding closely with spring and early summer maximum concentrations of chlorophyll a. Copepoda (mostly nauplii) were recorded at consistently lower densities (maxima, 20-125 1 super(-1)) whereas Cladocera were rarely recorded and never exceed 10 l super(-1). Most Cladocera belonged to species generally associated with macrophytes rather than truly planktonic species. The situation in main river and back channel situations contrasted markedly with that found in marinas, where densities of Rotifera, although extremely variable spatially, were generally higher than those in the adjacent main river. Copepoda and Cladocera were also much more abundant than at the river sites with taxa such as Bosmina and other typically planktonic taxa predominant. As rotifers are the main food for newly hatched cyprinids, spatial and temporal variation in their abundance relative to the spawning locations and hatching times of cypinid eggs may have important consequences for the growth and survival of young fish.
#|Battegazzore, M., & Renoldi, M. C.  1995.  Integrated Chemical and Biological Evaluation.  Water Air Soil Pollut v83, n3-4, p375(16). The Lambro River is considered to be one of the most polluted rivers in Italy. Three sampling sites were established on the Lambro River and one was established along the main tributary, the Lambro Meridionale River. Hydrochemical parameters were determined for the water samples, and macroinvertebrates were analyzed. Water-quality indices and multivariate analyses were used to explain the distribution of the main taxa on the basis of the analyzed parameters. Values of ammonia, DO, and conductivity were indicative of a degraded river in terms of water quality. Copper and chromium concentrations reached relatively high values at all sites except one. The least-polluted station was located upstream of Milan. Conductivity and DO were found to be important factors regulating the colonization of aquatic invertebrates. Multivariate analysis of the combined taxa and physicochemical parameters for both sampling dates of the study gave a complete picture of the relative importance of the parameters as possible agents on the community structures.
#|Bayes, C D.  The consent contract for effluent discharges.  J. INST. WATER ENVIRON. MANAGE. vol. 8, no. 4, pp. 417-424.  1994.  The consent for the discharge of effluent is a contract between the discharger and the regulator. Its purpose is reviewed and compared with effluent performance characteristics. The evolvement of consent conditions and compliance assessment in Scotland is described, together with the challenge posed by the need to implement the urban waste water treatment Directive. A new framework for the consent contract is proposed for sewage and industrial discharges, which clearly prescribes the required effluent performance, authorizes non-compliance, and embodies an explicit assessment of compliance.
#|Bazzanti, M.; Seminara, M.; Baldoni, S.  Chironomids (Diptera: Chironomidae) from three temporary ponds of different wet phase duration in central Italy.  Journal of Freshwater Ecology  vol. 12 (1):  p.89-99, 1997.  A one-year-study (during 1989-90) on 3 temporary ponds in central Italy examined the relationships between the composition and structure of chironomid communities and some environmental variables.  The 3 ponds showed differences in wet phase duration, dissolved oxygen content, and sediment organic matter. In the pond with longer aquatic phase and lower oxygen content a dominance of Chironominae (mainly Chironomus thummi (C. riparius) and C. plumosus) and Tanypodinae (mainly Psectrotanypus varius) was recorded, whereas in the pool with shorter habitat duration and higher oxygen content, Orthocladiinae (mainly Psectrocladius/Allopsectrocladius spp. and Cricotopus sylvestris) were dominant.  The pond with an intermediate wet phase length showed some characteristics common to the other 2 ponds.  The preferences of chironomids for ponds of different habitat duration can probably be ascribed to their larval size and strategies to survive in ephemeral waters. A more detailed analysis of chironomids of the pond with a longer wet phase showed the existence of 3 major phases of pond life (filling, intermediate and drying phases), according to the seasonal variations and the physicochemical conditions.
#|BC Environment. Environmental Protection Dept.  B.C.'s pulp mills: Effluent status report -- 1994 update. BC Environment. Environmental Protection Dept., Victoria (British Columbia). 1995. 14p. Of the 26 pulp and paper mills operating in British Columbia, 23 discharge effluents directly into the environment. Provincial regulations set maximum discharge levels for contaminants in these effluents. This report summarizes actions taken by provincial and federal governments and the pulp mills to comply with those regulations, and assesses the environmental benefits of those actions. The report updates a January 1994 report and includes those actions and results which occurred from October 1, 1993 to December 31, 1994. Data are included on effluent discharges, effluent toxicity, contaminant discharges per unit of pulp production, discharges of dioxins and furans, and changes to fisheries closures.
#|BECKER, MIMI; L. LARSEN.  IMPLEMENTING A BINATIONAL ECOSYSTEM MANAGEMENT STRATEGY IN THE GREAT LAKES BASIN: WILL THE REMEDIAL ACTION POLICY PROCESS SUCCEED IN RESTORING THE AREAS OF CONCERN? (TRANSBOUNDARY WATERS).  PH.D., 1996.  The purpose of this study was to determine whether an "ecosystem approach" to rehabilitate, maintain and protect the Great Lakes Basin transboundary resource system, including its ability to sustain multiple human uses over time is likely to succeed in a complex policy environment.The study highlights the most severely stressed level of the ecological system, where conventional environmental management initiatives have failed: the 43 designated Areas of Concern (AOC). It evaluates the Remedial Action policy process which has been underway in the Basin since 1987, and examines its potential to implement an ecosystem approach through a strategic Remedial Action Planning (RAP) process which is intended to succeed in restoring the functional integrity and enumerated impaired"beneficial uses" in the Areas of Concern. The study hypothesis assumed that the Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement's RAP process being implemented in the AOC is likely to be successful because it has taken an ecosystem approach to rehabilitate, redevelop and protect the Great Lakes System and assumed that the degree of success in restoring functional integrity in a given AOC depends upon the extent to which the RAP process in that AOC has incorporated ecosystem approach criteria. Six of 43 AOC were selected for case studies. Data was obtained from site visits, personal interviews, primary documents, direct observation, and surveys of RAP participants. An Ecosystem Approach Remedial Action Policy Process Implementation Evaluation Framework (EA-RAPPIEF) was developed to serve as a model and working hypothesis against which to examine the results of the RAP process to determine the extent to which each was successful and why. RAPs were behind projected deadlines: progress was slower than anticipated. One site was unsuccessful at Stage 1; five were making good to excellent progress, no AOC was restored. Bi-national AOC had the most problems. The EA-RAPPIEF's unique contribution is to establish aninformation base for assessing the adequacy of the RAP process as a strategy to restore and sustain AOC's ecological health. The EA-RAPPIEF is a device which local RAP participants can apply to assist implementation, including reforming their ecosystem's political ecology, presently the greatest barrier to success.
#|Belanger SE.  Literature review and analysis of biological complexity in model stream ecosystems: Influence of size and experimental design.  ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY, 1997, V36, N1 (FEB), P1-16.  A meta-analysis of more than 150 model stream ecosystem studies employed in hazard assessment was conducted to assess the effect of model ecosystem size on biological complexity and experimental design, Test system length was highly correlated to duration of colonization and chemical exposure period; however, size was generally unrelated to taxa richness, diversity, abundance, or biomass for algal, protozoan, and invertebrate assemblages, Fish were usually caged and not free-roaming, even in the relatively large (>10 m) systems, Experimental designs, especially in recent years, have been less concerned with pseudoreplication, resulting in studies emphasizing numerous treatments with few or no replicates, Test systems have evolved that emphasize flow through exposures, use of natural source waters, and regression-style experimental designs, These factors collectively reduce problems historically associated with pseudoreplication, Larger model ecosystems (>6 m) are advantageous for increasing the ability to sample more intensively through time and space without imposing sampling artifacts, Fish (caged and free-roaming) are also more often used in larger systems, Several model ecosystem studies that were compared with natural field-based communities demonstrated a high degree of correspondence for biological complexity attributes. Well-designed model stream ecosystems have a high degree of biological complexity and reasonable levels of variability for ecologically relevant endpoints, The use of small application factors (approximate to 1) is applicable to ecotoxicological results from these studies for risk assessment.
#|Bell, D. Craig ; Willardson, Tony.  Some Things Old and Some Things New - The Park City Principles: A Greater Role For the States in National Water Policy.  American Water Resources Association: Proceedings of the Symposia on Water Resources Education: A Lifetime of Learning and Changing Roles in Water Resources Management and Policy Bellevue, WA. June 27-30, 1993  p 495-504.  American Water Resources Association. Given an increasingly complex and changing system of values in water, The Western States Water Council and Western Governors' Association areaddressing challenges and opportunities for western water management. A series of workshops, begun in Park City, Utah, brought together federal, state and tribal water managers, fish andwildlife interests, environmentalists, academicians, and water and power user groups. This group recommended principles for improving institutional decision making through:a holistic or systematic approach at the "problemshed;" a policy framework responsible to a diverse set of economic, social and environmental values; within national policy parameters, the decentralization of authority and accountability in implementing these principles; joint state and federal participation in policy development and program administration; and a preference for performance standards, market mechanisms and negotiation, as distinct from command and control approaches, and litigation. The states emerge as the pivotal level of government for leadership and accountability in implementing these principles. States have the primary role in allocating water supplies, administering water rights, and implementing programs to protect water quality and public values. The federal government has an important continuing role in operating federal projects, exercising trust responsibilities and providing research and financial support The use of these principles promise to help reduce conflicts and balance the West's limited water resources with increasingly complex and competing demands, consistent with contemporary values.
#|BenDavidNovak H, Schick AP.  The response of Acacia tree populations on small alluvial fans to changes in the hydrological regime: Southern Negev desert, Israel.  CATENA 29: (3-4) 341-351 MAY 1997.  Two species of Acacia-A. tortilis and A. raddiana-inhabit channel beds of ephemeral streams in the hyperarid region of Eilat, Southern Negev, Israel. A survey was conducted on two adjacent small alluvial fans in this region in order to investigate the effect of an abrupt change in the hydrological regime on patterns of mortality and regeneration of Acacia tree populations. Changes in the Acacia tree population of the Nahal Yael alluvial fan, which was dammed at its apex 19 years ago, were compared with those in the adjacent Nahal Naomi alluvial fan which was left in its natural, unaltered state. The results show a 2.3 times higher mortality and a 4.1 times lower regeneration in the tree population of the Nahal Yael alluvial fan compared to that of Nahal Naomi. Patterns of mortality and regeneration of the Acacia tree population in the surveyed area are primarily influenced by surface flows, in contrast to groundwater, as generally assumed.
#|Bendixsen, R. B.  Hanford Site Treated Effluent Disposal Facility process flow sheet.  Department of Energy, Washington, DC.  Report No.: WHC-SA-1751; CONF-9307105-1.  Apr 93.  12p.  Annual American Nuclear Society (ANS) meeting, San Diego, CA (United States), 20-24 Jul 1993. Sponsored by Department of Energy, Washington, DC. This report presents a novel method of using precipitation, destruction and recycle factors to prepare a process flow sheet. The 300 Area Treated Effluent Disposal Facility (TEDF) will treat process sewer waste water from the 300 Area of the Hanford Site, located near Richland, Washington, and discharge a permittable effluent flow into the Columbia River. When completed and operating, the TEDF effluent water flow will meet or exceed water quality standards for the 300 Area process sewer effluents. A preliminary safety analysis document (PSAD), a preconstruction requirement, needed a process flow sheet detailing the concentrations of radionuclides, inorganics and organics throughout the process, including the effluents, and providing estimates of stream flow quantities, activities, composition, and properties (i.e. temperature, pressure, specific gravity, pH and heat transfer rates).  As the facility begins tooperate, data from process samples can be used to provide better estimates of the factors, the factors can be entered into the flow sheet and the flow sheet will estimate more accurate steady state concentrations for the components. This report shows how the factors were developed and how they were used in developing a flow sheet to estimate component concentrations for the process flows. The report concludes with how TEDF sample data can improve the ability of the flow sheet to accurately predict concentrations of components in the process.
#|Benhra, A., Radetski, C. M., & Ferard, J. F.  Cryoalgotox: Use of cryopreserved alga in a semistatic microplate test.  ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY. 1997, vol. 16, no. 3, pp. 505-508. Use of cryopreserved alga Selenastrum capricornutum has been evaluated as a simple and cost-efficient procedure in a new semistatic algal ecotoxicity test. Experiments have been conducted to compare performance criteria of this method, named Cryoalgotox, versus the classic microplate test using fresh algae. Cryoalgotox 72-h 50% effective concentrations (EC50s) determined with Cd super(2+), Cu super(2+), Cr super(6+), and atrazine were more sensitive, repeatable (low coefficients of variation), and reproducible (low time effect) than the results obtained with the classical microplate tests. The effect of storage time at -80 degree C on the sensitivity of the algae was assessed using cadmium as a toxic reference it was shown that algae stored at -80 degree C over a 3-month period gave comparable toxicity results to those found with fresh algae.
#|BENNETT, WILLIAM ROBERT.  EFFECTS OF CHLORINATED PHENOLICS AND DIDECYLDIMETHYLAMMONIUM CHLORIDE ON SWIMMING PERFORMANCE, GROWTH AND LETHALITY OF THE EARLY LIFE STAGES OF WHITE STURGEON (ACIPENSER TRANSMONTANUS).  Degree:  M.SC., 1996.  SIMON FRASER UNIVERSITY (CANADA).  Many sturgeon populations worldwide are vulnerable, threatened or locally extinct. White sturgeon (Acipenser transmontanus) are an important species in Canada and are classed as vulnerable. In fact, when numerous large ($\approx$130 kg) white sturgeon (A. transmontanus) washed ashore in the lower Fraser River in 1993 and 1994, public concern was raised over the possibility that toxic effluents may be affecting sturgeon survival. My objective was to test the early life stages of white sturgeon with chemicals found in the Fraser River.  My focus was on chlorinated phenolics and didecyldimethylammonium chloride because of the increase in forest industry (pulp mill and cut lumber) waste water discharge into the Fraser River in the past 30 years.  Chlorinated phenolics (guaiacols, catechols, vanillins) are components of pulp mill wastewater and have been detected in the Fraser River. In addition, didecyldimethylammonium chloride (DDAC) is a cationic quarternary ammonia fungicide that is used by the cut lumber industry and has also been detected in lumber storage site runoff along the lower Fraser River.
#|Bentley, M ; Longley, G. Impact assessment of industrial effluents on freshwater ecosystems.  PROCEEDINGS OF THE SECOND EUROPEAN CONFERENCE ON ECOTOXICOLOGY. Sloof, W ; de Kruijf, H (eds ).  SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT vol. Suppl. Pts. 1-2 pp. 1123-1128, 1993.  European Conf. on Ecotoxicology.  Amsterdam (Netherlands), 1992 May, 11-15.  The classical way of deriving water quality criteria and monitoring the aquatic environment is not always protective for aquatic life. In this study the impact of an industrial effluent on a river was examined. The proposed method examines the effluent as a whole and takes into account the in-stream conditions of the receiving water, including the pollution already present. Existing techniques consisting of laboratory bioassays (acute and chronic) and field surveys, were combined. This combination made it possible: (1) to assess the actual effect of the effluent on the aquatic organisms (2) to discriminate between the effect of the individual discharge and the pollution already present and (3) to propose "safe" discharge levels.
#|Bentley, M ; Longley, G.Toxicity of municipal wastewater effluents.  NEW WAVES vol. 6, no. 1, p. 2, 1993.  Regulatory agencies traditionally rely on numeric criteria for specific pollutants. These criteria may not adequately measure the actual toxicity of contaminants to aquatic organisms. Biomonitoring using test species such as "water fleas" or Daphnia species and fathead minnow larvae can more accurately depict the toxic effects of pollutants.
#|Bergman, H L.  New proposals for regulating metals in the aquatic environment: Geochemical, toxicological and physiological bases.  Andren, A W ; Bober, T W  (eds ).  REPORT NUMBER:  WISCU-W-96-001.  pp. 105-108, 1996.  Int. Conf. Transport, Fate and Effects of Silver in the Environment.  Madison, WI (USA), 1996 Aug 25-28.  There is a growing consensus in the scientific and regulatory communities that a departure is needed from past empirical approaches for evaluating the toxicity of metals to aquatic organisms. New approaches show promise for linking organism responses to fundamental changes in the target tissue (e.g., gills of fish) and to the details of metal chemistry at the target tissue. Mathematical models of both the biological and chemical processes can be used to estimate the bioavailable metal concentration at the target tissue. The next steps required include further validation of these models in additional species, additional metals, and a range of water quality conditions, along with the incorporation of receiving water exposure models. These models would explicitly take into account what has been termed "bioavailability" and have the potential to be predictive across a wide range of environmental conditions. This approach marks a turning point in developing a mechanistically based, workable method for assessing the effects of metal exposure on aquatic organisms, and the method could lead to a more fundamental approach to regulatory decisions about metals in the aquatic environment. The proposed approach, including the geochemical, toxicological and physiological bases, will be summarized in this presentation.
#|Bergman, H. L.; MacRae, R. K.  New Approach to the Determination of Bioavailable Metals in Surface Waters.  (Final technical rept. 1 May 91-30 Apr 94).  Air Force Office of Scientific Research, Bolling AFB, DC. Report No.: AFOSR-TR-94-0655.  26 Sep 94, 49p.  Order this product from NTIS by: phone at 1-800-553-NTIS (U.S. customers); (703)605-6000 (other countries); fax at (703)321-8547; and email at orders@ntis.fedworld.gov. Contract No.: AFOSR-91-0258; 3484; RS. The goal of this research was to develop analytical methods capable of determining the concentration of toxic (bioavailable) forms of copper in natural surface waters. The approach should also be applicable to other metals. The approach was: (1) to determine the apparent binding affinity of the gills of fish and other aquatic biota for copper using novel competition bioassay and copper residue accumulation techniques; and (2) to modify the performance of commercial cation exchange resins or synthesize custom-made cation exchange resins, to match the copper binding affinity of fish and other aquatic biota. Using a range of procedures, the apparent copper binding affinities (log of the Apparent Binding Affinity (ABA)) were determined for rainbow trout gills (6.4-7.2), brook trout gills (7.1-7.2), trout mucus (6.97.7), and Daphnia magna (6.6-8.1). Based on these results an acceptable value for log ABA would be 7.6 for cation-exchange chromatography procedures to measure the bioavailable fraction of copper.  Commercially available resins under a variety of conditions consistently had copper binding affinities that were 2 to 3 orders of magnitude higher than the measured values for aquatic biota. Custom cation exchange resins were synthesized and yielded binding affinities closer to that of aquatic biota, but additional work is needed to standardize and validate this approach.  Bioavailability, Metals, Water quality, Copper, Aquatic biota, Toxicity, Fish.
#|Bermingham, S ; Maltby, L ; Cooke, R C.  Effects of a coal mine effluent on aquatic hyphomycetes. 1. Field study.  JOURNAL OF APPLIED ECOLOGY vol. 33, no. 6, pp. 1311-1321, 1996. The effect of a discharge from an abandoned coal mine on the structure and functioning of aquatic hyphomycete assemblages colonizing leaf material was investigated. The discharge resulted in elevated concentrations of iron, manganese, magnesium, calcium and nickel in the receiving water. The rate of processing of both alder and sycamore leaves was reduced downstream of the discharge. Measurements of oxygen uptake by microbes associated with leaf material indicated a lower activity at this station. This reduction in activity was particularly marked for the fungal assemblages associated with leaf material.  Scanning electron micrographs of leaf surfaces indicated that hyphal cover was also reduced on downstream-incubated leaf material. The observed reduction in fungal activity and hyphal cover below the mine discharge may have resulted from a change in species-specific fungal biomass and/or a change in the number of fungal species present.  Surveys indicated that the structure of the fungal assemblage was different below the discharge, with fewer species being recorded.  Results from this study therefore suggest that the reduction in leaf decomposition observed downstream of the mine discharge was due to a reduction in fungal activity associated with a change in species composition.
#|Bernardova, I., T.G.  Development of the Pollution of the River Morava Evaluated from Zoobenthic Communities.  Water Sci Technol  v29, n3, p29(7) 1994.  The river Morava in the Czech Republic is highly polluted, due to high population density, intensive agricultural production, and effluent discharges. An extensive biological monitoring system has been in effect for the river since the mid-1970s. The sampling points are located in areas of marked spatial changes in the water quality, but each point has been sampled only once every 3-4 yr since 1976, due to economic constraints. An overview of the sampling program is presented, including the development of a saprobic index and the use of mathematical models to extrapolate the limited data.
#|Bervoets, L ; Baillieul, M ; Blust, R ; De Boeck, G ; Verheyen, R.  Impact assessment of industrial effluents on freshwater ecosystems.  PROCEEDINGS OF THE SECOND EUROPEAN CONFERENCE ON ECOTOXICOLOGY. Sloof, W ; de Kruijf, H (eds ).  SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT vol. Suppl. Pts. 1-2 pp. 1123-1128, 1993.  European Conf. on Ecotoxicology: Amsterdam (Netherlands), 1992 May 11-15.  The classical way of deriving water quality criteria and monitoring the aquatic environment is not always protective for aquatic life. In this study the impact of an industrial effluent on a river was examined. The proposed method examines the effluent as a whole and takes into account the in-stream conditions of the receiving water, including the pollution already present. Existing techniques consisting of laboratory bioassays (acute and chronic) and field surveys, were combined. This combination made it possible: (1) to assess the actual effect of the effluent on the aquatic organisms (2) to discriminate between the effect of the individual discharge and the pollution already present and (3) to propose "safe" discharge levels.
#|Bervoets, L ; Baillieul, M ; Blust, R ; Verheyen, R.  Evaluation of effluent toxicity and ambient toxicity in a polluted lowland river.  ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION vol. 91, no. 3, pp. 333-341, 1996.  The impact of an industrial effluent containing high loads of calcium, cadmium, lead chloride and sulphate, on a river ecosystem was assessed using a combination of an effluent toxicity test, an ambient toxicity test and an ecological survey. Only this combination of techniques made it possible to discriminate between the effects of the discharge and those of the background pollution. Each of the individual techniques detected essential effects which the other failed to reveal. With the physical and chemical measurements, important increases of several components were measured at all sampling sites downstream of the discharge. With the ecological survey, however, no large changes in water quality could be determined at the sampling sites, due to the high degree of pollution present upstream of the discharge.  Reproduction of Daphnia magna, exposed to sublethal effluent dilutions, was followed over two generations. The offspring of the first generation were shown to have an increased sensitivity to the effluent, compared to the first generation that was born from previously unexposed mothers. Besides the toxicity of the effluent, the acute and chronic toxicity of its main component, CaCl sub(2), was also determined. The results of the CaCl sub(2)-tests and toxicity data from literature for the suspected toxicants were transformed to Toxic Units (TU). Using the sum of the TUs we investigated the possibility of predicting effluent toxicity to Daphnia magna. Effluent toxicity was under-estimated by calculating the sum of the TUs of the individual components. Dilution of the effluent to a level at which the measured toxicant concentrations comply with European regulations still showed significant effects on Daphnia reproduction.
#|Besser, J. M.; Giesy, J. P.; Brown, R. W.; Buell, J. M.; Dawson, G. A.  Selenium bioaccumulation and hazards in a fish community affected by coal fly ash effluent.  Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety  vol. 35 (1):  p.7-15, 1996.  Selenium concentrations in tissues of fish from Pigeon River and Pigeon Lake, Lake Michigan, which receives Se input from a coal fly ash disposal facility, were examined in order to assess potential hazards to fish, wildlife and humans.  Se levels in fish from the vicinity of the fly ash disposal ponds were significantly greater than those upstream and were also greater than background Se levels in fish from the Great Lakes. Se levels in effluent from the ash pond to Pigeon River, and Se levels in springs and seeps near the ash ponds, exceed the water quality criterion for protection of aquatic life. Interspecific variation between fish species was greatest at the most contaminated sites. Limnetic species generally contained greater Se levels than benthic species. Se levels in fish from the lower Pigeon River and Pigeon Lake did not exceed lowest observable adverse effect concentrations (LOAEC) for tissue Se in fish species, but exceeded LOAEC for dietary Se exposure of sensitive species of birds and mammals.  The results suggest that human consumption of moderate quantities of fish from areas examined should not result in excessive Se intake.
#|BIANCHINI A, WASIELESKY W, & MIRANDA KC. (1996). TOXICITY OF NITROGENOUS COMPOUNDS TO JUVENILES OF FLATFISH PARALICHTHYS ORBIGNYANUS.  BULLETIN OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY, V56, N3, P453-459.  Boyer R., & Grue C.E.  The need for water quality criteria for frogs.  1995.  Environmental Health Perspectives;  103/4 (352-357).  Amphibians are considered reliable indicators of environmental quality. In the western United States, a general decline of frog populations parallels an apparent worldwide decline. The factors thought to be contributing to declines in frog populations include habitat loss, introduction of exotic species, overexploitation, disease, climate change, and decreasing water water quality. With respect to water quality, agroecosystems use 80-90% of the water resources in the western United States, frequently resulting in highly eutrophic conditions. Recent investigations suggest that these eutrophic conditions (elevated pH, water temperature, and un-ionized ammonia) may be associated with frog embryo mortality or malformations. However, water quality criteria for frogs and other amphibians do not currently exist. Here, we briefly review data that support the need to develop water quality parameters for frogs in agroecosystems and other habitats.
#|Bilby, Robert E.  Water quality monitoring in Washington's Timber/Fish/Wildlife program. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 26 (2-3):p249-262 1993.  Workshop on Improving Natural Resource ManagementThrough Monitoring Corvallis, Oregon, USA  March 10-11, 1992.
#|Birge, W J ; Shaw, J R ; Price, D J ; Kercher, M D ; Zuiderveen, J A.  Persistence, bioaccumulation and toxicity of silver in freshwater systems.  Andren, A W ; Bober, T W  (eds ).  pp. 113-120, 1996.  Int. Conf. Transport, Fate and Effects of Silver in the Environment.  Madison, WI: 1996 Aug 25-28.  A bioassessment study was conducted on the transport, fate and effects of silver and other metals in Big Bayou Creek in Western Kentucky. Results of environmental chemistry, effluent and ambient toxicity studies and ecological surveys were integrated to assess the effects of metal pollution. The stream system was a second to third order tributary of the Ohio River was of moderate gradient and was characterized by good habitat quality and frequent riffles, runs and pools. Sediment characteristics generally were comparable throughout the study area. The creek received four continuous and four intermittent effluent outfalls from a uranium enrichment plant. The discharge volume of the continuous effluent totaled 3.96 million gallons per day (MGD) and, in downstream order, included approximately 0.44 MGD for 009, 1.18 for 008, 0.71 for 006, and 1.63 for 001. The study area encompassed 10.7 stream km and included nine stream monitoring stations (BB1-BB9) and eight effluent monitoring points.  Water column residence time for metals calculated from the effluent 009 outfall were 0.65 hr, 1.2 hr, and 2.31 hr for downstream stations BB7, BB8 and BB9, respectively. The principal reference station (BB1) was 1.4 km upstream of the first effluent outfall (009). A nearby secondary reference station (BB2) also was located just upstream of effluent 009 and was used primarily for the collection of fish and macroinvertebrate taxa used for "sentinel monitoring" to characterize metal bioavailability. Ecological surveys included the collection of resident biota from all stream stations, including sites located downstream of each effluent. Ecological perturbation primarily affected macroinvertebrate populations. The latter were sampled in spring, summer, and fall of the first year of the study and annually thereafter for five years. Average results from the first two-years for total macroinvertebrate density and number of taxa are illustrated in Figure 1. Macroinvertebrate species richness and density were reduced perceptibly in the effluent receiving zone, amounting to losses of 33 and 77%, respectively. Abundance of mayfly taxa was reduced by more than 50% immediately below the 009 outfall. Multimetrics based on U.S. EPA Protocol III (Plafkin et al., 1989), were used to calculate bioassessment (BA) scores, which indicated moderate to substantial impact for stations BB3-BB7. Toxicological characterization of effluents and receiving waters was performed using chronic biomonitoring procedures with Ceriodaphnia dubia and the fathead minnow, Pimephales promelas (Weber et al., 1989). Of approximately 300 on-site tests, 92 were conducted on the continuously flowing effluents that discharged into Big Bayou Creek. Significant toxicity was observed for effluent 008 50% of the time. Effluent 004, which tested positive in 100% of tests conducted, originated from a secondary waste treatment plant and entered 008 just prior to its entry into Big Bayou Creek upstream of station BB4. As discussed below, metal uptake in resident biota was highest at this station.
#|Birge-W.J.; Black-J.A.  In situ Acute/Chronic Toxicological Monitoring of Industrial Effluents for the NPDES Biomonitoring Program Using Fish and Amphibian Embryo-Larval Stages as Test Organisms. Final rept. Kentucky Univ., Lexington.  Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Office of Water Enforcement and Permits. Sep 81. 135p. The Clean Water Act has necessitated further requirements and revisions in the industrial permit program maintained under the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES). It is now evident that in many cases the identification and control of toxic substances cannot be accomplished solely on the basis of an effluent guideline approach, emphasizing the need for reliable and economical procedures with which to quantify directly the net toxicity of complex effluents and estimate acute and chronic effects on aquatic biota. Therefore, the major objective of this investigation was to develop and evaluate fish and amphibian embryo-larval test procedures for the toxicogical characterization of municipal and industrial effluents.
#|Birkeland GH.  RIPARIAN VEGETATION AND SANDBAR MORPHOLOGY ALONG THE LOWER LITTLE COLORADO RIVER, ARIZONA.  Physical Geography. 17(6):534-553, 1996 Nov-Dec.  The distribution of riparian vegetation in relation to channel morphology is poorly understood in canyon rivers, which are characterized by in-channel fluvial sediment deposits rather than flood plains. This study focuses on vegetation and sandbar characteristics in two reaches of the lower Little Colorado River canyon in Arizona-one reach with ephemeral flow from the watershed, and another with perennial baseflow from a spring. Both reaches have been colonized by the exotic Tamarix chinensis, a riparian species known for its geomorphic influence on river channels. On the basis of a sampling of 18 bars, results show that vegetation frequency and density is significantly greater in the perennial study reach. However, sandbar morphology variables do not differ between reaches, despite a significantly narrower and deeper ephemeral channel. Hydraulic calculations of flood depths and Pearson correlations between bar and vegetation variables indicate reach-specific bio-geomorphic relationships. In the ephemeral reach, higher bars are less affected by flood inundation, support older vegetation, and may be more stable habitat for vegetation. In the wider perennial reach where bars are lower and more expansive, vegetation patterns relate to bar size, Tamarix being most common on the largest bars. Overall results suggest that (1) vegetation variation relates to baseflow hydrology, (2) bar formation relates to high discharge events, and (3) vegetation patterns respond to, rather than influence, sandbar form in this canyon riparian system.
#|Bishop, J H ; Canfield, D E ,Jr.  Water quality and aquatic macrophyte responses to natural and anthropogenic changes in the environment in Kings Bay, Crystal River, Florida.  LAKE AND RESERVOIR MANAGEMENT vol. 9, no. 2, p. 57, 1994. Kings Bay/Crystal River is located on the west coast of Florida, approximately 75 miles North of Tampa. Treated municipal effluent was removed from Kings Bay in March, 1992 in an attempt to reduce ambient nutrient concentrations (total phosphorus and total nitrogen) and the abundance of submersed aquatic plants. A tidal storm, which caused extensive flooding in the area, hit Kings Bay in March, 1993. Elimination of treated municipal effluent from Kings Bay did not significantly reduce total phosphorus and total nitrogen concentrations in Kings Bay. Pre-removal TP and TN concentrations were 36 mu g/L and 313 mu g/L, respectively. Post-removal concentrations were 30 mu g/L and 263 mu g/L, respectively. TP and TN concentrations were significantly reduce in Cedar Cove, the area of discharge. Pre-removal TP and TN concentrations in Cedar Cove were 106 mu g/L and 567 mu g/L, respectively. Post-removal concentrations were 30 mu g/L and 239 mu g/L, respectively. The March tidal storm elevated TP and TN concentrations above previously measured concentrations. TP concentrations were higher at each station and TN concentrations were higher at 16 out of 20 stations. The abundance of submersed vegetation, Hydrilla verticillata, Myriophyllum spicatum, Vallisneria americana, and Lyngbya sp., was reduced following the March Storm, but has increased in abundance in the summer of 1994, despite the removal of the treated municipal effluent.
#|Bissett, Lisa L. Field assessment of stream/aquifer interaction under semi-arid conditions and problems with computer representation.  1994. Thesis (M. Eng.)--Colorado School of Mines.  As the population increases and technological development grows in Colorado, problems with the appropriation of water are becoming more serious and common. Surface water rights are particularly difficult to obtain, so groundwater is becoming especially important to newcomers and entities with junior water rights. The relationship of groundwater use to stream discharge is well known, but difficult to quantify. Groundwater models have attempted to address the problem, but while some promising new codes have been developed, they have not been adequately tested and are not generally used. A field area in Golden, Colorado containing a small, ephemeral stream was studied with the aim of specifying problems associated with the modeling codes used in the area of stream/aquifer interaction. Field data describing the streamflow, streambed hydraulic conductivity, aquifer hydraulic conductivity and aquifer hydraulic heads were available, and data regarding streambed and aquifer geometries were collected. The scale and types of data collected were chosen to obtain information regarding flow and gradients across and surrounding the stream boundary. This information was used to construct and calibrate a MODFLOW groundwater flow model. MODFLOW mathematically models a three dimensional area in steady state or transient modes. The area is discretized into a three dimensional grid to which boundary conditions are set on all sides. Each grid cell is assigned parameter values. The model calculates the hydraulic head and the flow into and out of each grid cell. The Streamflow Routing Package was used as the stream module in MODFLOW. This package is more an accounting program, tracking the flow in streams interacting with the groundwater, than a true surface-water flow model. It allows the user to specify the stream stage or to have the code determine the stream stage. This second option is an improvement on the original MODFLOW river module. The original module used constant stream stages; it calculated the seepage between the groundwater system and the stream, but did not allow the stream stage to vary in response seepage.
#|Bitton G. Rhodes K. Koopman B.  CerioFAST: An acute toxicity test based on Ceriodaphnia dubia feeding behavior.  Environmental Toxicology & Chemistry 15(2). 1996. 123-125. We have developed a rapid acute toxicity test (CerioFAST) based on suppression of feeding activity of Ceriodaphnia dubia in the presence of toxicants. The bioassay consists of a 1-h exposure period to a given toxicant. Yeast cells, stained with a fluorescent dye, are added 20 min before the end of the exposure period. Response to a toxic sample is indicated by the absence of fluorescence in the gut of the daphnids. CerioFAST was compared to the standard 48-h C. dubia acute bioassay, using heavy metals and organic compounds.  CerioFAST EC50s of Cd, Cu, Pb, Ag, Zn, and carbofuran were in the 0.01-0.1-mg/L range, whereas EC50s of hexachloroethane, pentachlorophenol, trichlorophenol, and lindane were in the 1-10-mg/L range. CerioFAST EC50s of the heavy metals and organics were well correlated with EC50s obtained with the 48-h C. dubia bioassay.
#|Bitton,-G.; Rhodes,-K.; Koopman,-B.; Cornejo,-M.  Short-term toxicity assay based on daphnid feeding behavior. WATER-ENVIRON.-RES. 1995  vol. 67, no. 3, pp. 290-293.  A rapid acute toxicity assay based on feeding behavior of Ceriodaphnia dubia was developed and evaluated. Feeding behavior was observed by staining yeast cells with a nontoxic stain (DTAF), which fluoresces under epifluorescent illumination, feeding the stained yeast to daphnids after they were exposed to toxicants for 6 hours, and observing the uptake of yeast by the daphnids. The endpoint of the test is the presence or absence of fluorescence in the daphnid gut. An exposure time of 6 hours was utilized so that the test could be completed in one working day. The 6-hour feeding activity suppression assay was compared with the standard 48-hour acute bioassay for determining the toxicity of selected heavy metals, organic compounds, and industrial effluent samples. The EC sub(50)s of pure compounds obtained via the 6-hour and 48-hour tests were well correlated (P < 0.05). EC sub(50)s of industrial wastewaters obtained via the two tests were also correlated at the same level of significance. The 6-hour feeding activity suppression assay was generally more sensitive than the 48-hour acute bioassay.
#|Bleckmann, C A ; Rabe, B ; Edgmon, S J ; Fillingame, D.  Aquatic toxicity variability for fresh- and saltwater species in refinery wastewater effluent.  ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY vol. 14, no. 7, pp. 1219-1223.  1995.  The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has established test equirements for toxicity reduction or toxicity identification evaluations (TR/TIE) of wastewater effluents. Interpretations of test results are complicated by factors other than toxicity when essentially freshwater wastewaters flow into estuaries and the effluent permit requires marine organisms for testing. This paper reports the results of an investigation of potential freshwater surrogate species, and Microtox registered , for use in such a TIE. Of the five species tested, mysid shrimp were found to be most sensitive to unidentified toxicants in petroleum refinery wastewater. No strong correlations of this sensitivity to that of other organisms, or to several wastewater constituents, were identified. The two marine species specified in the effluent permit were more sensitive to the toxicants than were the freshwater species.
#|Bodaly, R A ; Rudd, J W M ; Flett, R J.  Effect of urban sewage treatment on total and methyl mercury concentrations in effluents.  FOURTH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE: MERCURY AS GLOBAL POLLUTANT, 1996 Aug 4-8.  Hamburg (Germany): Kluwer Academic Publishers.  Rudd, J W M ; Gilmour, C C ; Bodaly, R A  (eds ).  BIOGEOCHEMISTRY vol. 40, no. 2-3 pp. 279-291, 1998.  The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of sewage treatment on total mercury (THg) and methylmercury (MeHg) concentrations in domestic effluents and the contribution of urban sewage treatment facilities to THg and MeHg in rivers. We determined the concentrations of THg and MeHg in unfiltered samples of untreated and treated domestic sewage from the three treatment facilities and receiving river water within the City of Winnipeg. The concentrations of THg in the Red and Assiniboine rivers ranged from 3-31 ng/L. THg was related positively to suspended sediment concentrations in the rivers.  The concentrations of MeHg in these rivers were usually 0.2-0.3 ng/L. THg concentrations in raw sewage varied widely, from 2-150 ng/L. Treatment removed an average of 88% of this mercury. MeHg concentrations in raw sewage were 0.5-4.3 ng/L, however, after treatment at two treatment facilities, MeHg was greatly reduced, usually to 0.1-0.4 ng/L. Most treated sewage, therefore, had MeHg concentrations that were similar to levels in the receiving rivers and the effect of discharged effluent was usually a change of about 2% or less on concentrations in the rivers. However, one of the facilities (the West End plant) was discharging higher concentrations of MeHg, up to 2 ng/L, causing calculated increases of up to 11% in the concentration of MeHg in the Assiniboine River.
#|Bonner-LA; Diehl-WJ; Altig-R.  Physical, chemical and biological dynamics of five temporary dystrophic forest pools in central Mississippi. Hydrobiologia. 1997, 353: 77-89.  Five temporary forest pools at Noxubee National Wildlife Refuge, Mississippi, USA, were surveyed monthly for three years to gain a better understanding of the dynamics of temporary aquatic habitats. The objective of this study was to characterize the physicochemical and biological changes in temporary pools in order to assess the temporal habitat diversity. These ecosystems, all within no more than 4 km of one another, were heterotrophic with a detrital-based food web derived from allochthonous leaf litter from the surrounding mixed forest. The pools were chosen because of their close proximity to one another, they historically filled and dried seasonally, and they were known breeding sites for resident amphibian populations. Only 47% of the amphibian cohorts inhabiting the pools appeared to thrive and metamorphose prior to pool desiccation. Successful development and dispersal of larvae was variable among pools and years. The pool filling cycles differed among habitats and physiochemical and biological parameters were highly variable. The data suggest that ephemeral pools in this central piedmont region of Mississippi are each unique and represent habitats of low predictability for amphibian breeding and success. It is concluded that it is erroneous to draw generalizations regarding a 'typical' temporary pool ecosystem within this region.
#|Borchardt, Dietrich, Sperling, Frank. Urban Stormwater Discharges: Ecological Effects on Receiving Waters and Consequences for Technical Measures. Water Sci Technol  v36, n8-9, p173(6), 1997.  In central Europe, 30-50 sewer overflow events occur each year, lasting from one to several hours each. The data show that the short-term and delayed impacts of stormwater runoff are caused by site-specific parameters, which are also seen for overflows. In order to protect receiving waters from the adverse effects of stormwater runoff and overflows, critical combinations of receiving-water properties and urban-catchment properties need to be evaluated. A screening method is outlined for identifying these parameters, which considers chemical constituents, and hydraulic disturbances related to bed-sheer stress that exceed the frequencies and levels of natural conditions. Both criteria are combined into a problem-solving decision-making scheme that focuses on keyreceiving-water problems, such as a decrease in species abundance and/or population densities.
#|Borton, D L ; Streblow, W R ; Bradley, W K ; Bousquet, T ; Van Veld, P A; Wolke, R E ; Walsh, A H.  Survival, growth, production and biomarker responses of fish exposed to high-substitution bleached kraft mill effluent in experimental streams. ENVIRONMENTAL FATE AND EFFECTS OF PULP AND PAPER MILL EFFLUENTS.  Servos, M R ; Munkittrick, K R ; Carey, J H ; van der Kraak, G J (eds ). pp. 473-481, 1996.  International Conference on Environmental Fate and Effects of Bleached Pulp Mill Effluents.  Vancouver, British Columbia (Canada), 1994 Nov 6-10.  ST. LUCIE PRESS: DELRAY BEACH, FL.  Largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides), channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus), bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus) and golden shiners (Notemigonus crysoleucas) were exposed to a high-substitution bleached kraft mill effluent (BKME) at 0, 4 and 8% by volume in experimental streams for 263 d. The total production of all fish from the 8% effluent was nearly double the production in other streams, and the production of the four fish species in the stream receiving 4% effluent was very similar to the production in the two control streams. Fish were evaluated using several biomarkers (EROD, P450IA, hematocrit, leucocrit, condition factor, LSI, SSI) and histopathology but elevated liver P450IA content and EROD activity were the only responses that could be concluded to be caused by effluent exposure. The large number of significant differences between biomarkers of fish from the two controls or between an effluent exposure and only one of the two controls limited the interpretation of other biomarkers. Since the survival, growth and production of fish with elevated liver P450IA and EROD activity were not adversely affected by the effluent, these biomarkers did not correspond to the population level parameters measured in this study.
#|Botterweg, J ; Risselada, J.  Environmental Flows in New South Wales - What is the Aim and What Might They Look Like. Poster Papers, 15th Federal Convention, Australian Water and Wastewater Association, Volume 4, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia, April 18-23, 1993, p 926-931. Australian Water and Wastewater Association. Water extractions reduce streamflows. The time relocation effect of flow regulation is also important as dams allow flood water or seasonal peaks in river flows to be stored for later use at times of naturally low flow. Thus the seasonality of high and low flows may be subdued or even reversed and flood frequencies drastically lowered. The detrimental effect of regulation on natural stream ecology has been obvious for many years. Although numerous methods exist for determining the environmental flows which supply systems must provide, many of these models and analytical procedures are unsuitable for thevariable and erratic hydrology of Australia's rivers. This paper outlines the current approach to environmental flow management in New South Wales and particularly shows how this can be viewed as an exercise in risk management in the same way as many other water management decisions.
#|Botterweg, J ; Risselada, J.  Toxicity assessment of effluents in the Netherlands: Implementation, problems and prospects.  PROCEEDINGS OF THE SECOND EUROPEAN CONFERENCE ON ECOTOXICOLOGY.  Sloof, W ; de Kruijf, H  (eds ).  SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT vol. Suppl. Pts. 1-2 pp. 1105-1113.  1993.  2. European Conf. on Ecotoxicology, Amsterdam (Netherlands).  1992 May 11-15.  For many years ecotoxicologists worldwide have been working on the implementation of their knowledge in the hazard assessment of industrial effluents. Chemical analyses and risk assessment of complex effluents are often problematic. Among ecotoxicologists there is little doubt about the usefulness of toxicity tests or toxicity data as complementary tools to the routine chemical risk assessment and control. In the Netherlands the use of aquatic toxicity data from the literature is now being incorporated into a scheme for the risk assessment of effluents when granting consent-to-discharge (permit) effluents. Despite the potential advantages of the use of toxicity tests in whole-effluent-toxicity assessments, they are used infrequently in the Netherlands. An analysis has been made of the possible causes of the delay in implementation of ecotoxicological knowledge and tools in the hazard assessment of effluents in the Netherlands.
#|Bowie, George L.; Sanders, James G.; Riedel, Gerhardt F.; Gilmour, Cynthia C.; Breitburg, Denise L.; Cutter, Gregory A.; Porcella, Doald B.  Assessing Selenium Cycling and Accumulation in Aquatic Ecosystems.  Water Air Soil Pollut  v90, n1-2, p93(12) Jul 96.  A joint experimental research and modeling study was conducted to develop a methodology for assessing selenium toxicity in aquatic ecosystems. The aim was to find how the various Se forms are accumulated by organisms, and what roles organisms play in biogeochemical cycling. In the research phase, both laboratory studies and field experiments were conducted, designed to compare the results of Se uptake, transfer, and transformation from laboratory experiments to similar results from actual ecosystems. The experimental data are presented, which were used to develop biogeochemical and food-web transfer models. The models are illustrated by application to the Hyco Reservoir, a power-plant-cooling reservoir in North Carolina that experienced fishery declines during the mid-1970s as a result of Se contamination from ash-pond effluents. Examination of the modeling results show that the model adequately predicts Se exposure and food-web accumulation, and follows the important biogeochemical processes controlling the fate of Se loading to lakes. The lower trophic levels are shown to bioconcentrate Se several orders of magnitude above the concentrations in water and to respond much more quickly to changing Se concentrations than benthos and fish.
#|Boyer, Robin; Grue, Christian E. The Need for Water Quality Criteria for Frogs.  Environ Health Perspec  v103, n4, p352(6), Apr 95.  Amphibians are considered reliable indicators of environmental quality, as all life stages are susceptible to dermal absorption of toxicants in water. Ingestion of contaminated prey is also a potential pathway for toxicants to enter amphibians. The factors contributing to the decline of frog populations are identified, including habitat loss, overexploitation, disease, climate change, and deteriorating water quality. The alterations in water quality have been attributed to acidification, contaminants in agroecosystems in the western US, and eutrophication. Currently, no water-quality criteria exist for amphibians in the US. Consequently, tolerance limits for amphibians need to be determined and compared with existing criteria for fishes and human health in light of the declines in the quantity and quality of water and amphibian populations in many areas of the US.
#|Bradbury, S., Nolt, C., Goodman, B., Stromborg, K., & Sullivan, J.  Great Lakes Water Quality Initiative Criteria Documents for the Protection of Wildlife (PROPOSED): DDT, Mercury 2,3,7,8-TCDD and PCBs.  Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Office of the Assistant Administrator for Water.  Apr 93, 56p. The document outlines, for each category of contaminant listed in the title, the relevant literature, the calculation of mammalian wildlife value, the calculation of Avian Wildlife Value, and the Great Lakes Wildlife criterion.
#|Bradley Brian P; Gonzalez Carole M; Bond Jayne-Anne; Tepper Bruce E.  Complex mixture analysis using protein expression as a qualitative and quantitative tool.  Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry  13 (7):p1043-1050 1994.  Some proteins in organisms exposed to chemicals in stressful amounts or toxic concentrations show increased expression; others show decreased expression. These inducible and repressible proteins together potentially provide qualitative and quantitative diagnoses of components in complex mixtures of chemicals. We examined sets of proteins synthesized by Daphnia magna after exposure to mixtures of a cationic polyamide epichlorhydrin adduct (Kymene) and a combined assortment of water extractable substances from chemithermal-mechanical pulp (CTMP) in lab water. Proteins were identified, after extracting from Daphnia magna, by gel filtration and silver staining, or by radiolabeling and then gel separation. Patterns of proteins induced by Kymenee and by CTMP extracts were distinguishable in lab water, but there was interaction between them. The method of identifying and quantifying Kymene, however, was successful using lab simulations of mixtures. The method was tested using wastewater samples from a paper manufacturing plant. Kymene could be detected against variable levels and types of additional substances. But, again, there was interference, perhaps due to Kymene binding to other anionic polymers sometimes present in the samples. Interpretations from analyses of protein expression were consistent with results from sublethal Ceriodaphnia dubia assays.
#|Brady D; Letebele B; Duncan J R; Rose P D.  Bioaccumulation of metals by Scenedesmus, Selenastrum and Chlorella algae.  Water S A (Pretoria)  20 (3):p213-218 1994.  Three species of algae were investigated for their ability to accumulate metal ions. Scenedesmus, Selenastrum and Chlorella species were found to be capable of accumulating metals such as Cu-2+, Pb-2+, and Cr-3+ with 67 to 98% efficiency. Although Chlorella was less capable of accumulating these cations than the other two organisms, it possessed a greater capacity for the Cr-2O-7-2- anion. A suspension of Selenastrum was used to accumulate Cr-3+ from a sample of post-anaerobic digester tannery effluent. The algae removed 39% of the chromium from solution.  The rate of metal (Cu-2+, Pb-2+, Cr-3+) accumulation by Scenedesmus was rapid, occurring in the first 4 min. Of the 4 metals investigated, Cu-2+, Cr-3+, Pb-2+ and Cr-2O-7-2-, the former 2 were more toxic to the algae than the latter two.
#|Brasher, Anne M.; Ogle, R. Scott.  ComparativeToxicity of Selenite and Selenate to the Amphipod Hyalella azteca.  Arch Environ Contam Toxicol  v24, n2, p182(5) Feb 93. The comparative toxicity of two selenium forms to the amphipod Hyalella aztecia is reported. Selenite proved two to four times more toxic than selenate in 48-, 96-, and 240-h LC 50 tests. The difference in toxicity declined as exposure time increased. The difference in toxicity between the two Se forms was most pronounced in a 24-d reproductive bioassay. Selenite caused a marked decrease in number of young per female at a dose of 200 (gr)mg/l, while selenate exerted no effect up to 700 (gr)mg/l, the highest concentration tested.
#|Bright, D. A.; Coedy, B.; Dushenko, W. T.; Reimer, K. J.  Arsenic Transport in a Watershed Receiving Gold Mine Effluent Near Yellowknife, Northwest Territories, Canada.  Sci Total Environ  v155, n3, p237(16) Oct 28, 94.  The fate of inorganic arsenic in aquatic systems was studied in a watershed impacted by gold mine effluent near Yellowknife, NWT, Canada.  Inorganic As in sediment particulates, pore water, and the water column had a maximum level 4-6 km downstream of mine input. Arsenite was the major form in sediment pore water and arsenate was the most abundant dissolved form in the water column. Mine effluent contained no arsenite, which was observed in increasing concentrations in water with increasing downstream distance from the input pipe. As distribution in surficial sediments appeared governed largely by bulk movement of sediments, followed by burial with less polluted materials in upper watershed reaches.
#|British Columbia. Water Quality Branch, Victoria.  Ambient fresh water and effluent sampling manual.  Report No.: ISBN-0-7726-2287-6.  1994.  80p.  This manual covers the minimum requirements needed to ensure quality and consistency of the field aspects of ambient water and effluent data collection.  The essential tasks in water sampling are to obtain a sample that meets program requirements in terms of location and frequency and to prevent deterioration and contamination of the sample before analysis.  Procedures in the manual include those for site location, making notes and observations, quality assurance and control, collection of samples from lakes and streams, collecting samples of effluent and receiving water, field measurements, field filtration and preservation, shipping of samples, and equipment cleaning. Appendices include checklists, data sheets, sample container and hold time criteria, and protocols for sampling the most common variables.
#|Brown, C A.  Macroinvertebrate community patterns in relation to physico-chemical parameters measured at two land-based trout farms affecting streams in the south-western Cape, South Africa.  ARCHIV FUER HYDROBIOLOGIE vol. 138, no. 1, pp. 57-76, 1996.  Macroinvertebrate community structure was investigated upstream, and at various distances downstream, of two trout farms situated alongside mountain streams in the south-western Cape, South Africa, in order to ascertain which of the constituents of trout-farm effluent identified by an earlier general survey were most responsible for changes in the macroinvertebrate communities downstream of the farms, and the concentrations at which the changes occurred. Of the farms, one used plastic-lined 'portapools' to house their fish, and the other, earthdams. Only the effluent discharged from the portapool trout farm resulted in notable changes in downstream benthic-macroinvertebrate community structure. The community downstream of the effluent outlets was dominated by non-insects, as opposed to the community upstream of the influence of the farm which was dominated by insect taxa. It was possible to recognise and identify differences in community structure upstream and downstream of the farms, and to relate these to organic pollution present in the systems. The macroinvertebrate community structure changed in response to relatively small changes in water physico-chemistry. Particulate organic material suspended in trout-farm effluent best correlated with the changes in the macroinvertebrate community structure recorded downstream of the portapool farm.  Maintenance of suspended particulate organic matter concentrations to below 1.5 mg l super(-1) (dry weight) in the river, should protect the integrity of the community structure of macroinvertebrate fauna of mountain streams in the south-western Cape, providing flows do not drop abnormally low relative to the historical condition.
#|Bruine-B-de; Rukura-L; De-Bruine-B; Rosbjerg-D (ed.); Boutayeb-NE (ed.); Gustard-A (ed.); Kundzewicz-ZW (ed.); Rasmussen-PF.  Sustainable development of water resources in a semiarid country such as Namibia. Sustainability of water resources under increasing uncertainty. Proceedings of an international symposium of the Fifth Scientific Assembly of the International Association of Hydrological Sciences (IAHS), Rabat, Morocco, 23 April to 3 May 1997. In an arid to semiarid country, such as Namibia, water may be the single most important limiting resource in sustainable development. The planning and operation of surface water supply must therefore take into account the natural variability and unpredictability of the rainfall and river flow. Environmental water requirements of unique wetlands at the mouths or deltas of internationally shared rivers have to be duly considered should any form of development be undertaken. Historically the westward flowing rivers were opportunistically utilized by nomadic people and their cattle. An increase in population has resulted in increased pressure on the limited available resources. In the event of construction of dams on the ephemeral rivers, careful consideration has to be given to the possible effects on the downstream sites in these linear oases. All of the above factors point to the need for improved hydrological monitoring and modelling in arid zones with inherently uncertain hydrological regimes.
#|Bryce SA, Clarke SE.  Landscape-level ecological regions: Linking state-level ecoregion frameworks with stream habitat classifications.  ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 20: (3) 297-311 MAY-JUN 1996.  Regionalization is a form of spatial classification, where boundaries are drawn around areas that are relatively homogeneous in landscape characteristics. The process of delineating ecological regions, or ecoregions, includes the analysis of ecosystem structure. To date, ecoregions have been developed at national and slate scales for research and resource management. Stream classificationis another method to order the variability of aquatic habitats that spans spatial scales from microhabitat to valley segment. In this study, landscape-level ecoregions are developed for the upper Grande Ronde River basin in northeastern Oregon, 3000 sq km in area. The ecoregionframework presented here is proposed to bridge the gap between stream habitat and state-level ecoregion classifications. Classification at this scale is meant to address issues of management atlocal scales: to aid in sampling design, in extrapolation of the results oi site-specific studies, and inthe development of best management practices that are more predictive of ecosystem response than current methods.
#|Bubb, J M ; Lester, J N.  Partitioning and availability of sediment-bound metals following final sewage effluent release to a lowland river.  SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT vol. 162, no. 1, pp. 72-91, 1995.  A simple partitioning scheme was used to assess the partitioning and behaviour of copper, cadmium, iron, lead and manganese within the surface waters and sediments of the River Yare, Norfolk, UK, following the discharge of final effluent to the water course from municipal sewage treatment works (STW). Sewage effluent discharges were shown to increase metal concentrations and complexation capacities in receiving waters, but the tidal nature of the river meant that surface water monitoring could not accurately pinpoint the contamination source or the main metal partitioning trends. Sediments formed a more stable base on which to perform contaminant studies: these revealed that metals discharged from the STW rapidly accumulated in bottom deposits in relative stable chemical forms.
#|Bucher, F.; Hofer, R.  The effects of treated domestic sewage on three organs (gills, kidney, liver) of brown trout (Salmo trutta ).  WATER RES  VOL. 27, NO. 2, pp. 255-261, 1993.  In an experiment extending over approx. 3 months, brown trout (Salmo trutta) were exposed to dilutions of biologically-treated wastewater (13, 24 and 42%) from a large sewage plant. The two higher concentrations caused a sequence of histological changes in the kidney and, after some delay, in the liver as well. No effects were detectable in the gills however. In all dilutions of the biologically-treated sewage, external injury of the fish was rapidly followed by fungal infection.  Furthermore, kidney changes similar to those seen in the experiment were also observed in brown trout and rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss ) caught downstream of the point at which the treated effluents from sewage plant entered the River Inn. The pathogenic effects of ammonia and nitrite in the treated sewage are discussed.
#|Bugosh, N.; James, W. Stormwater discharge permitting -- experiences in a rural western state.  Stormwater and Water Quality Management Modeling Conference Toronto, ON (Canada), 2-3 Mar 1995.  ADVANCES IN MODELING THE MANAGEMENT OF STORMWATER IMPACTS  pp. 223-238, 1996.  ANN ARBOR PRESS, INC., CHELSEA, MI. This work presents an evaluation of the performance of the stormwater permitting program in Montana, a rural western state. Stormwater program implementation in rural areas presents different challenges than those encountered in urban areas. The types of facilities, the types of stormwater discharge conveyances, and the resources available to address stormwater may be very different from urban areas. The work will discuss: the legal basis for Montana's stormwater program, the types of stormwater discharge permits available, the applicability of the various permits, the compliance activities permitteesmust conduct, the success of the program in achieving its goals, precautions for stormwater modelers working in Montana and similar areas, and the fee system that supports the program.
#|Bull WB. Discontinuous ephemeral streams.  GEOMORPHOLOGY 19: (3-4) 227-276 JUL 1997.  Many ephemeral streams in western North America flowed over smooth valley floors before transformation from shallow discontinuous channels into deep arroyos. These inherently unstablestreams of semiarid regions are sensitive to short-term climatic changes, and to human impacts, because hillslopes supply abundant sediment to infrequent large streamflow events.  Discontinuous ephemeral streams appear to be constantly changing as they alternate between two primary modes of operation; either aggradation or degradation may become dominant. Attainment of equilibrium conditions is brief. Disequilibrium is promoted by channel entrenchment that causes the fall of local base level, and by deposition of channel fans that causes the rise of local base level.  These opposing base-level processes in adjacent reaches are maintained by self-enhancing feedback mechanisms.  The threshold between erosion and deposition is crossed when aggradational or degradational reaches shift upstream or downstream. Extension of entrenched reaches into channel fans tends to create continuous arroyos. Upvalley migration of fan apexes tends to create depositional valley floors with few stream channels. Less than 100 years is required for arroyo cutting, but more than 500 years is required for complete aggradation of entrenched stream channels and valley floors.  Discontinuous ephemeral streams have a repetitive sequence of streamflow characteristics that is as distinctive as sequences of meander bends or braided gravel bars in perennial rivers. The sequence changes from degradation to aggradation - headcuts concentrate sheetflow, a single trunk channel conveys flow to the apex of a channel fan, braided distributary channels end in an area of diverging sheetflow, and converging sheetflow drains to headcuts. The sequence is repeated at intervals ranging from 15 m for small streams to more than 10 km for large streams.  Lithologic controls on the response of discontinuous ephemeral streams include: (1) amount and size of sediment yielded from hillslopes: (2) infiltration capacity of valley-floor alluvium that influences both the unit stream power available for upstream headcut migration, and the attenuation of flashy streamflow events by riparian vegetation in sheetflow reaches; and (3) cohesiveness of alluvium, which affects headcut and streambank morphology, and rates of arroyo extension, downcutting, and widening. Initiation of arroyo cutting may be too complex to be attributed to a single cause such as change in mean annual precipitation or grazing by livestock, but is most likely associated with a decrease in density of protective plant cover on hillsides and along valley floors. Relatively larger unit stream power makes downstream reaches more susceptible to initial entrenchment during floods than headwaters reaches, and favors persistent arroyos. Entrenchment continues until an equilibrium longitudinal profile is briefly attained. Then, channel widening occurs: streambanks are undercut and aggradation begins.
#|BUMGARDNER J, MALONE C, WALKER L F, & SHANKS R F.  USE OF MONTE CARLO TECHNIQUES TO ASSESS POTW COMPLIANCE WITH EPA WATER QUALITY CRITERIA FOR HEAVY METALS.  WATER ENVIRON RES, 65 (5). 1993.  674-678. This paper presents the results of a study (Larry Walker Associates, 1990) to determine the nature of additional controls necessary for the Sacramento Regional Wastewater Treatment Plant (Regional Plant) to comply with the numeric water quality objectives for metals recently adopted by the State of California. In addition, the impact of Regional Plant effluent an Sacramento River metals concentrations is examined, and the costs of compliance with the new objectives are estimated. Monte Carlo techniques are used to determine the ability of the Regional Plant to achieve the metals objectives and the effects of treatment plant discharge on receiving water metal concentrations. Frequency distributions of advanced treatment efficiencies, such as lime precipitation and reverse osmosis, are used to simulate effluent concentration reductions that are potentially achievable. The costs associated with the additional treatment required to meet objectives are estimated using published cost estimates for advanced treatment plants of similar size. Results show that currently, the Regional Plant does not meet objectives for cadmium, copper, mercury, and zinc. Furthermore, the additional treatments evaluated would not completely eliminate violations of the copper and mercury objectives.
#|Burkhard, L P ; Sheedy, B R ; McCauley, D J.  Prediction of chemical residues in aquatic organisms for a field discharge situation.  CHEMOSPHERE vol. 29, no. 1, pp. 141-153, 1994.  A field study was performed which compared predicted and measured concentrations of chemicals in receiving water organisms from three sampling locations on Five Mile Creek, Birmingham, Al. Two point source discharges, both from coke manufacturing facilities, were included in the field site and five chemicals were studied, i.e., biphenyl, phenanthrene, anthracene, fluoranthene, and pyrene. Composite samples of effluent, receiving water organisms, crayfish (Decapoda) and sunfish (Lepomis sp.), and stream and discharge flow data were collected in March and April 1990. For the crayfish and sunfish, the measured residues were within a factor of 5 for 80% (12 of 15) and 53% (8 of 15) of the residues predicted using EPA's draft procedure (US-EPA 1991b), respectively, and were within a factor of 5 for 60% (9 of 15) and 40% (6 of 15) of the residues predicted using EPA's procedure with a BCF set equal to the chemical's K sub(ow) (after adjustment for lipid content of the organism), respectively. The predicted residues tended to be larger than the measured residues and with increasing K sub(ow) greater disagreement between the predicted and measured values was observed.
#|Burkhard-L.P.; Jenson-J.J.  Identification of Ammonia, Chlorine, and Diazinon as Toxicants in a Municipal Effluent.  Environmental Research Lab.-Duluth, MN.  AScI Corp., Duluth, MN. 1993. 12p.  Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 25, p506-515 1993.  A toxicity identification evaluation (TIE) was performed on a muncipal effluent, and three toxicants were identified, ammonia, chlorine, and diazinon. The report illustrates the types of data and logic used in performing a TIE which contains common municipal toxicants. Emphasis in this report was place on the data needed for generating the 'weight of evidence' in toxicant confirmation. Phase III, to support the suspect toxicants identified in the TIE process. Multiple Phase III manipulations, when applied to numerous effluent samples, provided consistent results for generating the 'weight of evidence' for the confirmation of ammonia and chlorine as the primary causes of toxicity of this effluent.
#|Burnison,-B.K.; Hodson,-P.V.; Nuttley,-D.J.; Efler,-S.  A bleached-kraft mill effluent fraction causing induction of a fish mixed-function oxygenase enzyme. ENVIRON.-TOXICOL.-CHEM. 1996  vol. 15, no. 9, pp. 1524-1531.  Pulp mill effluents contain a myriad of chemicals that have the potential to cause deleterious effects on aquatic biota in receiving waters. Some of these chemicals evoke an acute lethal response of exposed biota while others evoke sublethal responses. One such sublethal response is the induction of mixed-function oxygenases (MFO) in fish, specifically the CYP1A1 enzyme ethoxyresorufin-o-deethylase (EROD). We followed the partitioning of the inducing chemicals in pulp mill effluent fractions by Toxicity Identification Evaluation (TIE), or bioassay-driven chemical analysis. This procedure was eventually modified to a more direct technique involving centrifugation, filtration, cleanup procedures, and C sub(18) solid-phase adsorption. The extracts from the fractionation of two pulp mill effluents after secondary treatment were tested for EROD-inducing activity in a 4-d rainbow trout bioassay. The methanol extracts of particulates/colloids showed significant inducing capacity in Mill A effluent but not in Mill B effluent. The C sub(18) methanol extracts induced activity from both effluents, with extracts from Mill A causing the greatest response. The particulate/colloidal extract (Mill A) was used as the source material for chemicals which caused EROD induction. The fraction was purified by solid-phase extraction techniques and reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography. The majority of the EROD activity was found in the moderately nonpolar region of the chromatogram (K sub(ow) = 4.6 to 5.1).
#|Burton-D.T.; Tieman-D.M.  Evaluation of Biomonitoring Systems for Assessment of Contaminated Water and Sediments at U.S. Army Installations - Continuous Acute Toxicity Biomonitoring of Aberdeen Proving Ground-Edgewood Area Old O-Field Groundwater Treatment Facility Effluent. Annual rept. 31 Jul 95-30 Jul 96. Maryland Univ., Queenstown. Wye Research and Education Center. 30 Aug 96. 184p.  Old O-Field is a hazardous waste disposal site at the Aberdeen Proving Ground-Edgewood Area, Aberdeen, Maryland, which has contaminated the underlying groundwater. The contaminated groundwater is collected and treated at the Old O-Field Groundwater Treatment Facility (GwTF) with subsequent discharge to the Gunpowder River. An in-line automated fish ventilatory biomonitoring system was installed at the GWTF to monitor the effluent for unexpected toxicity as it is discharged. A number of out of control events (stressed fish) occurred during the study (June 23, 1995 to March 31, 1996). The out of control responses occurred from (1) changes in effluent water quality; (2) power failures; or (3) a proportional diluter failure. No acute toxicity attributable to the GWTF effluent quality occurred during the study.
#|Butler, D. L., Krueger, R. P., Campbell Osmundson, B., & Jensen, E. G.  Reconnaissance investigation of water quality, bottom sediment, and biota associated with irrigation drainage in the Dolores Project Area, southwestern Colorado and southeastern Utah, 1990-91.  1994. Water Resources Investigations Report: 94:4041. 126 pp. Water, bottom-sediment, and biota samples were collected in 1990-91 to identify water-quality problems associated with irrigation drainage in the Dolores Project area. Concentrations of cadmium, mercury, and selenium in some water samples exceeded aquatic-life criteria. Selenium was associated with irrigation drainage from the Dolores Project, but other trace elements may be transported into the area in the irrigation water supply. Selenium concentrations exceeded the chronic aquatic-life criterion in water samples from lower McElmo Creek and Navajo Wash, which drain the Montezuma Valley, from newly irrigated areas, and from the Mancos River. The maximum selenium concentration in water was 88 micrograms per liter from Navajo Wash. Concentrations of herbicides in water were less than concentrations harmful to aquatic life. Selenium concentrations in four bottom-sediment samples exceeded the baseline concentrations for soils in the Western United States. The largest selenium concentrations in biota were in samples from Navajo Wash, from newly irrigated areas north of the Montezuma Valley, and from the Mancos River basin. Selenium concentrations in aquatic-invertebrate samples from the newly irrigated areas exceeded a guideline for food items consumed by fish and wildlife. Selenium concentrations in whole-body suckers were larger in the San Juan River downstream from the Dolores Project than upstream from the project at Four Corners. Selenium concentrations in fathead minnow samples from two sites were at adverse-effect levels. Mercury concentrations in warm-water game fish in reservoirs in the study area may be of concern to human health. Some concentrations of other trace elements exceeded background concentrations, but the concentrations were not toxicologically significant or the toxicologic significance is not known.
#|Camargo, J A.  Performance of a New Ecotoxicological Index to Assess Environmental Impacts on Freshwater Communities.  Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology BECTA6 Vol. 44, No. 4, p 529-534, April 1990. If an aquatic organism is not adapted to thrive in an environmental disturbance, its ability to grow, reproduce, or compete in the biological community will be affected negatively, being substituted for another one more resistant and better adapted to environmental stress. The performance of a simple ecotoxicological index to assess environmental impacts produced by man 's activities on freshwater communities was derived by totaling the species deficit index and a new species substitution index. The first index measures the percentage difference between the number of species occurring above and below the disturbance point. The second index measures the species substitution percentage between both places. A sample of the benthic riffle macroinvertebrate community was taken at each of five sampling stations using a cylinder sampler. All samples were preserved in Formalin until their separation, determination , and counting. The following biological parameters and indices were calculated: the number of species or species richness, the organism density, the number of common species, the Margalef 's diversity index, the Shannon 's diversity index, the species substitution index, and the ecotoxicological index. The highest value of the ecotoxicological index corresponded with the smallest diversity because effects of dam and industrial effluent act simultaneously on the benthic macroinvertebrate community at the third sampling station. However, the rank of environmental impact decreased with the distance to disturbance points.  The taxonomic identification of species is perhaps the only and major problem in using this index.
#|Camargo, J A.  The importance of biological monitoring for the ecological risk assessment of freshwater pollution: A case study.  ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL vol. 20, no. 2, pp. 229-238, 1994.  A comparative study of the organic pollution generated by trout farm effluent on its downstream ecosystem was conducted in the middle reaches of a Galician stream within the province of Lugo (northern Spain). Physicochemical and biological surveys were undertaken during the spring of 1988. The physicochemical monitoring showed a slight pollution. Total hardness, water temperature, dissolved oxygen, nitrate, organic matter, sulfate, sodium, pH, and chloride exhibited similar values along the study area, whereas concentrations of total phosphorus increased significantly downstream from the fish farm outlet. In contrast, the biological monitoring (based on benthic macroinvertebrates) showed more important pollution, diversity, biotic, and similarity parameters decreasing markedly downstream from the trout farm. In addition, the pristine trophic structure of the macrobenthic community was altered: scrapers and shredders being the macroinvertebrate functional feeding groups most adversely affected by the fish farm effluent. This difference in pollution degree between the physicochemical monitoring and the biological monitoring was probably due to the reduction in the carrying capacity of the trout farm and the decrease in the trout feeding during the period of the field survey. It is concluded that both physicochemical and biological monitorings are needed for proper ecological risk assessment of freshwater pollution in order to provide the maximum information for adequate protection of aquatic ecosystems.
#|Camargo, J A. Comparing levels of pollutants in regulated rivers with safe concentrations of pollutants for fishes: A case study.  CHEMOSPHERE vol. 33, no. 1, pp. 81-90, 1996. The present study compares levels of fluoride ion (F-) in the regulated Duraton River receiving an industrial effluent with safe concentrations (SCs) of F- for brown trout (Salmo trutta) and rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) to evaluate the responsibility of fluoride pollution for the absence of trout populations downstream from the effluent. SCs for each trout species were estimated using the multifactor probit analysis software on acute mortality data. Differential releases from the dam caused short-term flow fluctuations at S-1 (between dam and effluent), S-2, S-3 and S-4 sampling sites (0.1, 2.2 and 7.3 km downstream from the effluent). Because of this, fluoride concentrations exhibited a temporal variation over a one-day period downstream from the industrial effluent the highest and lowest concentrations (pm F-) were 0.11 and 0.10 at S-1, 19.6 and 1.67 at S-2, 7.02 and 0.43 at S-3, and 2.98 and 0.52 at S-4. The mean F-concentration at the industrial effluent was 25.3 plus or minus 3.9 pm. SCs (infinite hours LC0.01s) of F- for rainbow trout and brown trout were respectively 5.14 and 7.49 pm. Comparisons between levels of F- in the Duraton River and SCs for trout species apparently indicate that fluoride pollution was a minor factor in determining the absence of trout populations downstream from the industrial effluent. It is concluded that intensive (24 hours) sampling surveys of pollutant levels should be undertaken in regulated rivers with pollution sources (e.g., industrial effluent) to evaluate appropriately the real influence of pollutants on freshwater organisms.
#|Camoin,-G.; Casanova,-J.; Rouchy,-J.-M.; Blanc-Valleron,-M.-M.; Deconinck TI:  Environmental controls on perennial and ephemeral carbonate lakes: the central palaeo-Andean Basin of Bolivia during Late Cretaceous to early Tertiary times. SEDIMENT.-GEOL. 1997 vol. 113, no. 1-2, pp. 1-26.
#|Campbell, K R.  Silver accumulation in three species of fish (family: Centrarchidae) in stormwater treatment ponds.  FLORIDA SCIENTIST vol. 57, no. 1-2, pp. 34-41, 1994.  Redear sunfish (Lepomis microlophus), largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides), and bluegill sunfish (Lepomis macrochirus) were collected from stormwater ponds and natural lakes and ponds in the Greater Orlando area and analyzed for silver in order to determine: (1) if fish that live in stormwater treatment ponds bioaccumulate significant concentrations of silver and (2) if differences in silver concentrations between species with different foraging strategies occur. Redear sunfish from stormwater ponds (0.458 mg/kg) contained significantly higher (p<0.005) concentrations of silver than fish from control sites (0.001 mg/kg). Largemouth bass and bluegill collected from stormwater ponds (0.419 mg/kg 0.0278 mg/kg, respectively) contained higher concentrations of silver than those from control sites (0.0418 mg/kg  0.0014 mg/kg, respectively), but the differences were not statistically significant. No significant (p<0.05) correlations between silver concentration and length and weight of any of the three fish species were found.
#|Campbell, P M ; Kruzynski, G M ; Birtwell, I K ; Devlin, R H.  Quantitation of dose-dependent increases in CYP1A1 messenger RNA levels in juvenile chinook salmon exposed to treated bleached-kraft mill effluent using two field sampling techniques.  ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY vol. 15, no. 7, pp. 1119-1123, 1996.  Increases in hepatic CYP1A1 messenger RNA (mRNA) levels were quantitated, using a reverse-transcriptase competitive polymerase-chain-reaction assay, from juvenile chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) following exposure to treated bleached-kraft mill effluent (BKME). Two tissue preservation techniques, alcohol fixation and freezing, were compared and both found to be valid, although absolute values obtained differed between the methods. The results of this study show that juvenile chinook respond with a dose-dependent induction of CYP1A1 mRNA to levels of treated BKME found under winter, low-flow conditions downstream of pulp mills in the Fraser River, British Columbia, Canada. The validation of alcohol fixation as a sampling technique for studies on mRNA levels improves the ease of field sampling and increases the feasibility of using CYP1A1 mRNA level as a bioindicator of exposure of fish to specific chemical contaminants.
#|Cantafio, A W ; Hagen, K D ; Lewis, G E ; Bledsoe, T L ; Nunan, K M ; Macy, J M.  Pilot-scale selenium bioremediation of San Joaquin drainage water with Thauera selenatis.  APPLIED AND ENVIRONMENTAL MICROBIOLOGY vol. 62, no. 9, pp. 3298-3303, 1996.  This report describes a simple method for the bioremediation of selenium from agricultural drainage water. A medium-packed pilot-scale biological reactor system, inoculated with the selenate-respiring bacterium Thauera selenatis was constructed at the Panoche Water District, San Joaquin Valley, Calif. The reactor was used to treat drainage water (7.6 liters/min) containing both selenium and nitrate.  Acetate (5 mM) was the carbon source-electron donor reactor feed.  Selenium oxyanion concentrations (selenate plus selenite) in the drainage water were reduced by 98%, to an average of 12 plus or minus 9 mu g/liter. Frequently (47% of the sampling days), reactor effluent concentrations of less than 5 mu g/liter were achieved.  Denitrification was also observed in this system nitrate and nitrite concentrations in the drainage water were reduced to 0.1 and 0.01 mM, respectively (98% reduction). Analysis of the reactor effluent showed that 91 to 96% of the total selenium recovered was elemental selenium 97.9% of this elemental selenium could be removed with Nalmet 8072, a new, commercially available precipitant-coagulant. Widespread use of this system (in the Grasslands Water District) could reduce the amount of selenium deposited in the San Joaquin River from 7,000 to 140 lb (ca. 3,000 to 60 kg)/year.
#|Canton, S. P., & Derveer, W. D. V.  1997.  Selenium toxicity to aquatic life: an argument for sediment-based water quality criteria.  Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry vol. 16 (6): 1255.
#|Cappel, R. (1995). Update on silver research and regulation.  Proceedings of the IS&T Annual Conference 1995. Soc Imaging Sci Technol, Springfield, VA, USA. p 175-177. This paper presents an update of the Silver Research Program on silver's toxicity, environmental fate, transport, and measurement in natural waters, sediments, soils, and sludges. To date, the program has resulted in substantial changes in the silver regulations. EPA has reversed three major silver regulations, the 1990 Draft Silver Criteria Document, the proposed silver standards in the National Toxic Rule, and the proposed silver standards in the Great Lakes Water Quality Initiatives. In addition, EPA has deleted the Primary Drinking Water Quality Standards, both of which has to be done before silver could be proposed for removal from the hazardous wastes listing. EPA has also encouraged the states that adopted their proposed standards to reconsider them. Finally, EPA included silver in a group of metals establishing new policy of using the dissolved for rather that the total recoverable form in Water Quality Standards.
#|Carder JP; Hoagland KD. Combined effects of alachlor and atrazine on benthic algal communities in artificial streams.  ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY, 1998, V17, N7 (JUL), P1415-1420.  A duplicated factorial approach was used to assess the combined effects of three environmentally realistic levels of alachlor (0.0, 5.0, and 90.0 mu g/L), cross-classified with three environmentally realistic levels of atrazine (0.0, 12.0, and 150.0 mu g/L), on indigenous epipelic algae (mud-dwelling species, characteristic of agricultural streams). The Experiment was conducted in 18 recirculating laboratory streams over a 4-week period. Biovolume of viable algal cells and relative abundance of the six dominant algal species were utilized as experimental endpoints. Community biovolume was impacted throughout the experiment in streams treated with 12.0 and 150.0 mu g/L atrazine and in streams containing 90.0 mu g/L alachlor, but only in samples collected at 4 weeks. The effects of atrazine and alachlor together on algal community biovolume appeared to be additive rather than synergistic. The relative abundance of two dominant algal taxa were impacted in streams treated with alachlor, but only one species remained affected over time. The lack of significant interactions is most likely attributable to the different modes of action of atrazine and alachlor. The additive nature of these two herbicides should be an important consideration in the development of water quality criteria.
#|Carey-J.H.  Recent Canadian studies on the physiological effects of pulp mill effluent on fish. Department of Fisheries and Oceans, Ottawa (Ontario).  Environment Canada, Ottawa (Ontario). 1993. 21p. In December 1991, the federal government announced a Pulp and Paper Regulatory Package that included regulations on the discharge of biochemical oxygen demand, suspended solids and acute toxicity for all pulp and paper mills, as well as placing strict limits on discharges of chlorinated dioxins from pulp and paper mills employing bleaching. During the development of the regulatory package, recent Canadain research confirmed that impacts on wild fish in the receiving environment were associated with the discharge of effluent from Canadian pulp mills. The federal government has set a high priority on identifying the compounds that are responsible for the damage detected in wild fish and on identifying pulping or waste treatment processes that eliminate these effects. This document reviews the data that prompted the federal government studies, and outlines the recent, significant findings on effects of pulp mill discharges in Canadian environments.
#|Carpenter S R; Caraco N F; Correll D L; Howarth R W; Sharpley A N; Smith V H.  Nonpoint pollution of surface waters with phosphorus and nitrogen. Ecological Applications  8 (3):p559-568 Aug., 1998.  Agriculture and urban activities are major sources of phosphorus and nitrogen to aquatic ecosystems. Atmospheric deposition further contributes as a source of N. These nonpoint inputs of nutrients are difficult to measure and regulate because they derive from activities dispersed over wide areas of land and are variable in time due to effects of weather. In aquatic ecosystems, these nutrients cause diverse problems such as toxic algal blooms, loss of oxygen, fish kills, loss of biodiversity (including species important for commerce and recreation), loss of aquatic plant beds and coral reefs, and other problems. Nutrient enrichment seriously degrades aquatic ecosystems and impairs the use of water for drinking, industry, agriculture, recreation, and other purposes. Based on our review of the scientific literature, we are certain that (1) eutrophication is a widespread problem in rivers, lakes, estuaries, and coastal oceans, caused by overenrichment with P and N; (2) nonpoint pollution, a major source of P and N to surface waters of the United States, results primarily from agriculture and urban activity, including industry; (3) inputs of P and N to agriculture in the form of fertilizers exceed outputs in produce in the United States and many other nations; (4) nutrient flows to aquatic ecosystems are directly related to animal stocking densities, and under high livestock densities, manure production exceeds the needs of crops to which the manure is applied; (5) excess fertilization and manure production cause a P surplus to accumulate in soil, some of which is transported to aquatic ecosystems; and (6) excess fertilization and manure production on agricultural lands create surplus N, which is mobile in many soils and often leaches to downstream aquatic ecosystems, and which can also volatilize to the atmosphere, redepositing elsewhere and eventually reaching aquatic ecosystems. If current practices continue, nonpoint pollution of surface waters is virtually certain to increase in the future. Such an outcome is not inevitable, however, because a number of technologies, land use practices, and conservation measures are capable of decreasing the flow of nonpoint P and N into surface waters. From our review of the available scientific information, we are confident that: (1) nonpoint pollution of surface waters with P and N could be reduced by reducing surplus nutrient flows in agricultural systems and processes, reducing agricultural and urban runoff by diverse methods, and reducing N emissions from fossil fuel burning; and (2) eutrophication can be reversed by decreasing input rates of P and N to aquatic ecosystems, but rates of recovery are highly variable among water bodies. Often, the eutrophic state is persistent, and recovery is slow.
#|Carriker, R.R. Federal environmental policy: a summary overview. Lexington, Ky. : Southern Agricultural Economics Association, 1993.  Journal of agricultural and applied economics. July 1996. v. 28 (1)  p. 99-107, 126-134. Paper presented at the Southern Agricultural Economics Association, Annual Meeting, February 3-7, 1996, Greensboro, North Carolina. Discussion by W.M. Park, p. 126-129 and P.E. Norris, p.130-134. The National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), which was signed into law on January1, 1970, has come to be regarded as the first major piece offederal legislation to call for comprehensive attention to environmental concerns in the United States. During the two decades following enactment of NEPA, Congress adopted and then refined major legislation on nearly every aspect of environmental quality concerns:  air pollution, water pollution, drinking water quality, hazardous waste management, wildlife protection, pesticide use, and several related problem areas. Current arguments for environmental regulatory reform are a phase in the continuing evolution of this body of federal environmental policy.
#|Carter L F. Porter S D .  Trace-element accumulation by Hygrohypnum ochraceum in the upper Rio Grande Basin, Colorado and New Mexico, USA.  Environmental Toxicology & Chemistry 16(12). 1997. 2521-2528.  Accumulation of 12 trace elements by transplanted aquatic bryophytes (Hygrohypnum ochraceum) was determined at 13 sites in the Rio Grande and tributary streams in southern Colorado and northern New Mexico as part of the U.S. Geological Survey's National Water-Quality Assessment Program. The purposes of the study were to determine the spatial distribution of trace elements in relation to land-use practices in the upper Rio Grande Basin, compare accumulation rates of metals in bryophytes at sites contaminated by trace elements, and evaluate transplanted aquatic bryophytes as a tool for examining the bioavailability of trace elements in relation to concentrations in water and bed sediment.  Concentrations of Cd, Cu, Pb, and Zn in bryophytes, water, and bed sediment were significantly higher at sites that receive drainage from mining areas than at sites near agricultural or urban activities. Concentrations of most trace elements were lower in a tributary stream below an urban source than at sites near mining or agricultural use.  Concentrations of Cu and Zn in bryophytes correlated with concentrations in water and bed sediment. In addition, bryophyte concentrations of As, Cd, and Pb correlated with concentrations in bed sediment. Transplanted bryophytes can provide an indication of bioavailability. Rates of accumulation were related to the magnitude of ambient trace-element concentrations; maximal uptake occurred during the first 10 d of exposure. Trace-element concentrations in transplanted bryophytes could potentially be used to predict water and sediment concentrations that represent an integration of conditions over short to intermediate lengths of time, rather than instantaneous conditions as measured using water samples.
#|CASTRO, JANINE MICHELLE.  STREAM CLASSIFICATION IN THE PACIFIC NORTHWEST:  METHODOLOGIES, REGIONAL ANALYSES, AND APPLICATIONS (SALMON, RCNR, BANKFULL, FLUVIAL).  OREGON STATE UNIVERSITY.  PHD.  1997, pp: 104.
#|CDM Federal Programs Corp., Oak Ridge, TN and U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, DC.  Mercury issues related to NPDES and the CERCLA watershed project at the Oak Ridge Y-12 Plant.  Report No.: Y/ER/MS-4, Nov 96, 32p.  The purpose of this document is to present the current understanding of the issues and options surrounding compliance with the current National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit conditions. This is a complicated issue that directly impacts, and will be directly impacted by, ongoing CERCLA activities in Lower East Fork Poplar Creek and the Clinch River/Poplar Creek.  It may be necessary to reconstitute the whole and combine actions and decisions regarding the entire creek (origin to confluence with the Clinch River) to develop a viable long-term strategy that meets regulatory goals and requirements as well as those of DOE's 10-Year Plan and the new watershed management permitting approach. This document presents background information on the Reduction of Mercury in Plant Effluents (RMPE) and NPDES programs insofar as it is needed to understand the issues and options. A tremendous amount of data has been collected to support the NPDES/RMPE and CERCLA programs. These data are not presented, although they may be referenced and conclusions based on them may be presented, as necessary, to support discussion of the options.
#|CHANG AC; PAGE AL; ASANO T; HESPANHOL I.  DEVELOPING HUMAN HEALTH-RELATED CHEMICAL GUIDELINES FOR RECLAIMED WASTE-WATER IRRIGATION.  WATER SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, 1996, V33, N10-1, P463-472.  We examined the methodology of developing globally applicable human health-related chemical guidelines of using wastewater for crop irrigation. Two approaches may be used to develop pollutant loading guidelines: (a) preventing pollutant accumulation in waste receiving soil and (b) maximizing soil's capacity to assimilate, attenuate, and detoxify harmful chemicals. Pollutant loading rates based on the first approach are in agreement with the fundamental principle of maintaining ecological balances in soil. But numerical limits usually are very stringent and it is difficult for communities to meet these requirements. Recommendations derived with the second approach represent the maximum permissible loadings beyond which pollutant levels in the soil may be harmful to the exposed population. A method employing the second approach was evaluated. Preliminary pollutant loading limits for land application of wastewater are derived by considering the food chain transfer of pollutants via intake of grain, vegetable, root/tuber, and fruit grown on wastewater-affected soils.
#|Changming, Ye.  Modelling of Lijiang River.  J Environ Sci-China  v6, n2, p234(10) Jun 94.  A one-dimensional mathematical model is used to examine the DO profile in the Lijiang River, China, which has been polluted by domestic effluents and effluents from paper mills and fertilizer plants. The model considers six parameters: BOD, aeration, photosynthesis and respiration by algae, nitrification, and water temperature. The model is used to determine the pollutant load that can be sustained by the river and still maintain the DO level above a standard level. Modeling results suggest that, to maintain a DO of 4 mg/l, the effluent load from the Guilin City must be treated more effectively. For a DO standard of 6 mg/l, the BOD must be reduced by 15% over current levels.
#|CHAPMAN JC.  THE ROLE OF ECOTOXICITY TESTING IN ASSESSING WATER QUALITY.  AUSTRALIAN JOURNAL OF ECOLOGY, 1995, V20, N1 (MAR), P20-27.  Ecotoxicology provides a basis for making decisions on the likely impact of a chemical or effluent on the aquatic environment. It encompasses laboratory ecotoxicity tests of various types to explore relationships between exposure and effect under controlled laboratory conditions, through to studies of the effects of chemicals or effluents under a variety of ecological conditions in complex field ecosystems. This paper will focus on the value of laboratory ecotoxicity tests as a tool in assessing water quality. Laboratory tests are valuable (i) in deriving and assessing water quality criteria, (ii) for screening and ranking chemicals and predicting their hazard and risk, (iii) for establishing dilution levels of chemicals or effluents prior to discharge into water bodies, (iv) in determining cause-effect relationships in postimpact studies, acid (v) for establishing and validating field bioindicators. Both the advantages and deficiencies of using ecotoxicological testing for these purposes are illustrated from research with pesticides, metals and sediments. Use of a combination of both laboratory- and field-based ecotoxicology studies is important togain a full understanding of the effects of chemicals at the ecosystem level.
#|CHAPMAN PF, CRANE M, WILES J, NOPPERT F, & MCINDOE E. (1996). IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF STATISTICS IN REGULATORY ECOTOXICITY TESTS.  ECOTOXICOLOGY,V5, N3, P169-186. The results of an international workshop on the use of statistics in regulatory ecotoxicology are presented. There are currently many errors of omission in the recommendations on statistical analysis given in test guidelines. These are identified and advice is given on how to incorporate best statistical practice. The use of the no observed effect concentration (NOEC) as a summary statistic is questioned, and an alternative is suggested. Several areas of research that would resolve uncertainty in the design and analysis of ecotoxicity tests are also identified.
#|Chapman, P. J.; Reynolds, B.; Wheater, H. S.  Hydrochemical changes along stormflow pathways in a small moorland headwater catchment in Mid-Wales, UK.  Journal of Hydrology (Amsterdam) vol. 151 (2/4):  p.241-265, 1993.  A hydrogeochemical investigation of a small moorland catchment in Mid-Wales assessed the importance of chemical changes along stormflow pathways to stream water chemistry.  Flow from a network of ephemeral, natural soil pipes was identified as a major source of solute-rich water to the stream during storm events. Water was sampled during five events, of different rainfall magnitudes and antecedent conditions. Samples were collected at several points within the pipe network, along the water pathway from a major pipe outlet to the head of the stream and within the stream channel. There were significant changes in the chemical composition of water along the flow pathways to the stream; antecedent conditions, size of event and season were important in determining the magnitude of these changes. Between the outlet of the main pipe and the stream channel, concn of Ca, Mg and Si increased, whereas concn of dissolved organic carbon (DOC), Fe, H- and Al species decreased. The response of K and NO3-N varied with season.  Concn of Na, Cl and SO4 varied little along the pathway.  The most significant change in chemical composition was the release of Ca and Mg and the associated consumption of H+ within the drift material at the head of the stream.  This reaction has important consequences for the degree to which the stream is buffered against inputs of acidic pipe water and hence for the acidity of the stream water.  Solutes whose concn and speciation are controlled by pH are also affected.  These results emphasize the significance of spatial variability within the catchment soils and the importance of chemical and biological reactions along water pathways in determining stream water chemistry.
#|Chapman-G.; Anderson-B.; Bailer-A.; Baird-R.; Berger-R.  Discussion Synopsis: Effluent Toxicity Testing Methods and Appropriate Endpoints. (Chapter 3). Symposium paper. Corvallis Environmental Research Lab., OR.  Miami Univ., FL.  Los Angeles City Bureau of Sanitation, CA. 1995. 37p. This paper is a discussion of issues relating to the appropriate selection of endpoints (biological and statistical) for current Whole Effluent Toxicity (WET) testing methods with emphasis on the more contentious chronic tests. This workgroup also discussed the utility and information value of recent methods for conducting WET tests. The chapter covers background and history, biological endpoint issues and recommendations, statistical endpoint issues, and overall conclusions and recommendations.
#|Charoy, C. P., Janssen, C. R., Persoone, G., & Clement, P. (1995). The swimming behaviour of Brachionus calyciflorus (rotifer) under toxic stress. 1. The use of automated trajectometry for determining sublethal effects of chemicals.  AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY vol. 32, no. 4, pp. 271-282. Changes in the locomotory behaviour of the freshwater rotifer Brachionus calyciflorus were used as sublethal indicators of toxic stress. To that end, the swimming behaviour of this rotifer was analysed using an automated tracking system. The swimming speed (temporal factor), the swimming sinuosity (spatial factor), and the periods of swimming were measured and the influence of four chemicals, each representing a distinct chemical class (copper, pentachlorophenol, lindane and 3,4-dichloroaniline), on the rotifer's swimming characteristics were examined. The three test parameters exhibit different sensitivities depending on the chemical tested. The 2-h EC sub(50)s obtained with the behavioural test were of the same order of magnitude as the 24-h LC sub(50)s resulting from conventional acute toxicity tests with the same test species. This potential use of behavioural test criteria for sublethal toxicity testing with rotifers is briefly discussed.
#|CHEN J, LIAO Y, ZHAO Y, WANG L, LU G, & ZHAO T. (1996). QUANTITATIVE STRUCTURE-ACTIVITY-RELATIONSHIPS AND MIXTURE TOXICITY STUDIES OF HETEROCYCLIC NITROGEN-COMPOUNDS.  BULLETIN OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY,V57, N1, P77-83.
#|Chen W, Tan S K, & Tay J H.  Distribution, fractional composition and release of sediment-bound heavy metals in tropical reservoirs.  Water Air and Soil Pollution, 92 (3-4). 1996.  273-287. The concentrations of heavy metals in bottom sediments from urban receiving waters, Kranji Reservoir and MacRitchie Reservoir in Singapore, were investigated. Distribution of the heavy metals in the bottom sediment, interstitial water and overlying water was analysed. The concentration of heavy metals in the interstitial water was found to be significantly high and exceed the water quality criteria by three to eleven times. The partitioning coefficient shows that the solubility of the metals are in the order: Mn gt Zn gt Cu gt Ph gt Fe gt Al. Fractional composition of heavy metals in the sediments was determined using sequential extraction process. The results show that Cu was largely complexed by organics, 74% of Zn was in easily remobilised fractions, and 36% of Pb was in the easily reducible fraction and 47% in carbonate and ion-exchangeable fractions. Release of sediment-bound metals was studied. The results indicate that, besides pH and redox, the sediment buffering capacity is an important parameter affecting the remobilization of heavy metals from sediment.
#|Chhaya, J ; Thaker, J ; Mittal, R ; Nuzhat, S ; Mansuri, A P ; Kundu, R.  Influence of textile dyeing and printing industry effluent on ATPases in liver, brain, and muscle of mudskipper, Periophthalmus dipes.  BULLETIN OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY vol. 58, no. 5, pp.793-800, 1997.  Dyeing and printing industry effluents are known to be potent inhibitors of various enzymes including the membrane bound ATPases. The membrane bound ATPase system is responsible for, among others, movements of ions across membrane. The experimental animal of the present study Periophthalmus dipes, a euryhaline teleost inhabiting the coastal mudflats, is an important constituent of the coastal food chain and is occasionally consumed by the local fisherfolks. Therefore, in the present study an attempt has been made to assess the dose and duration dependent toxicity of dyeing and printing industry effluent on a few ion dependent ATPases in liver, brain and muscular tissues of P. dipes.
#|Chisholm, E A ; Servos, M R ; Munkittrick, K R.  Metabolic clearance of caffeine as an indicator of induced MFO activity in fish exposed to pulp mill effluent.  36TH CONFERENCE OF THE INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR GREAT LAKES RESEARCH, JUNE 4-10, 1993. p.147. 1993.  Fish which are exposed to pulp mill effluent exhibit numerous changes in physiology and whole organism responses, including induction of hepatic mixed-function oxygenase (MFO) activity. Studies of mammals have shown that MFO activity is the rate limiting factor in the metabolic clearance of caffeine. Field experiments were carried out on white sucker (Catostomus commersoni), exposed to bleached kraft mill effluent in Jackfish Bay, Lake Superior, and from the adjacent Mountain Bay reference site, to determine if an increase in the rate of depuration of caffeine could be used as an indicator of induced MFO activity in fish. The fish were dosed i.p. with 5 mg/Kg body weight of caffeine, followed by repeated bleeding over a six hour period. The level of caffeine was measured in the serum by HPLC and the resultant clearance rates were compared to the actual EROD activities, measured directly in the livers. The use of metabolic clearance rates of caffeine in fish as a surrogate for direct MFO measurements may provide a powerful experimental tool.
#|Christman, J N ; Beverly, M D.  Storm water permitting.  JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL PERMITTING vol. 4, no. 3, pp. 3-24, 1995.  Until October 1, 1994, Section 402(p)(1) of the Clean Water Act (CWA) prohibited EPA from requiring National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permits for all but a few (primarily industrial and certain municipal) dischargers of only storm water. Even though this moratorium has passed, EPA has not yet issued permitting regulations for these nonindustrial and (mostly) nonmunicipal dischargers of storm water. In an October 18, 1994, memorandum, EPA indicated that all storm-water-only dischargers without permits are now technically in violation of the CWA. How EPA will ultimately define the universe of dischargers requiring a permit is unclear. Although EPA says that it will not take enforcement action against those storm water dischargers formerly subject to the moratorium, they are still subject to citizen suits. Thus, with the status of the "Category 11" exemption for light industry unsettled and Congress considering reform of statutory storm water provisions, uncertainty prevails for many industrial and commercial point source dischargers of storm water.
#|Clark, M. L., & Sadler, W. J. (1996).  Occurrence of selenium and mercury in surface water, Wind River Indian Reservation, Wyoming.  Water Resources Investigations Report 96: 4159.  14 pp. Physical and chemical data were collected in May and August, 1995, from an irrigated area of the Wind River Federal Irrigation Project, Wind River Indian Reservation, Wyoming. Surface-water samples were collected from irrigation drains, ponds and streams in the Sharp Nose Draw and Mill Creek drainage areas, and from the Little Wind River. These samples were analyzed for selenium and mercury, as well as other selected inorganic constituents. Of the 13 samples collected in May, 6 had selenium concentrations greater than the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's (USEPA) chronic aquatic-life criterion of 5 mg/L (micrograms per liter) and one exceeded the aquatic-life acute criteria of 20 mg/Lake Samples with selenium concentrations exceeding aquatic criteria were collected from Sharp Nose Draw and the Mill Creek drainage areas. Selenium concentrations in all 12 samples collected in August were less than the laboratory minimum reporting level of 5 mg/Lake The large selenium concentrations were associated with large dissolved solids concentrations that occur prior to the irrigation season when accumulated salts are flushed to drainages through ground water and natural precipitation. Mercury concentrations were less than the laboratory minimum reporting level of 0.1 mg/L for all samples except one collected in May that had a concentration of 0.3 mg/Lake This concentration was larger than the aquatic-life chronic criterion of 0.012 mg/L established by the USEPA, but less than the aquatic-life acute criterion of 2.4 mg/L for mercury established by the USEPA.
#|Clarke, Sharon E; Bryce, Sandra A. Hierarchical subdivisions of the Columbia Plateau and Blue Mountains ecoregions, Oregon and Washington. U S Forest Service General Technical Report PNW  0 (395):pI-III, 1-115 Sept., 1997. This document presents two spatial scales of a hierarchical, ecoregional framework and provides a connection to both larger and smaller scale ecological classifications. The two spatial scales are subregions (1:250,000) and landscape-level ecoregions (1:100,000), or Level IV and Level V ecoregions. Level IV ecoregions were developed by the Environmental Protection Agency because the resolution of national-scale ecoregions provided insufficient detail to meet the needs of state agencies for establishing biocriteria, reference sites, and attainability goals for water-quality regulation. For this project, two ecoregions-the Columbia Plateau and the Blue Mountains were subdivided into more detailed Level IV ecoregions. Similarly, the finer scale landscape-level ecoregions (Level V) were developed to address local land management issues. The landscape-level ecoregions for northeast Oregon and southeast Washington were created specifically to address the issue of anadromous fish habitat. Their delineation, however, employed landscape information similar to that used in other levels of the ecoregion hierarchy, thereby indicating the potential for general application of these regions to both terrestrial and aquatic research questions. The study area for the landscape-level ecoregions was defined by contiguous watersheds within the ecoregions of the Columbia Plateau and Blue Mountains to merge the ecoregional information with units corresponding to fish distribution.
#|CLEMENTS WH, & KIFFNEY PM. (1994).  INTEGRATED LABORATORY AND FIELD APPROACH FOR ASSESSING IMPACTS OF HEAVY-METALS AT THE ARKANSAS RIVER, COLORADO.  ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY, V13, N3, P397-404. This research employed an integrated laboratory and field approach lo assess effects of heavy metals at the Arkansas River, a Colorado stream impacted by historic mining operations. Ambient metal levels, chronic toxicity, metal bioaccumulation by benthic organisms, and benthic community structure were examined at stations located upstream and downstream from California Gulch (CG), a U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Superfund site near Leadville, Colorado. Although each approach demonstrated effects of metals from CG, important differences among approaches were observed. Ambient metal concentrations and chronic toxicity tests conducted with Ceriodaphnia dubia indicated reduced water quality at upstream and downstream stations. Because of temporal variability in metal levels, water samples collected for chronic toxicity tests did not reflect average exposure conditions. Instream monitoring of benthic communities was necessary to characterize metal impacts at the Arkansas River, but this approach had limitations. Levels of metals in periphyton and benthic invertebrates were significantly elevated at stations downstream from CG. Variation in metal levels among taxa and the absence of some taxa from some stations may limit the use of bioaccumulation studies for monitoring metal impacts. Benthic community structure was altered downstream from CG, but some metrics (e.g., species richness, abundance) were not affected by heavy metals because of the replacement of sensitive taxa by tolerant taxa. Because each of the approaches employed in this study provided different information on the degree of metal impacts, we recommend an integrated approach for assessing effects of metals on streams.
#|Cobb, G.P.; Jeffers, R.; Waldrop, V.C.; Bills, T.; Forsythe, B.; Wenholz.  Effect of chloride, hardness and dissolved organic carbon on silver solubility in aquatic toxicity tests.  M.; Saul, B.; La Point, T.W.; Klaine, S.J.; Andren, A.W.; Bober, T.W. (eds.).  Int. Conf. Transport, Fate and Effects of Silver in the Environment.  Madison, WI (USA) 25-28 Aug 1996, pp. 69-78.  Silver solubility was measured over a four day period during toxicity tests.  In these systems, silver, water hardness, chloride, and dissolved organic carbon were controlled. Total silver and silver that passed through a 0.45 mu m filter were measured by graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry.  Hardness had no observable effect on silver solubility. DOC had pronounced effects on silver solubility.  Apparently DOC bound the silver, keeping it suspended in solution, but did not allow passage through 0.45 mu m filters.  The DOC was most noticeable factor affecting soluble silver concentrations when added silver was 2-10 ng/ml. When 20 ng/ml silver was added to test systems, chloride and DOC caused reductions in silver solubility which were similar in magnitude. Chloride had a larger effect on silver solubility than did DOC in solutions receiving 40 ng/ml of silver.
#|Coburn, J.  Cleaning up urban stormwater: The storm drain stenciling approach (or getting to the nonpoint source). JOURNAL OF SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION vol. 49, no. 4, pp. 312-316, 1994. Urban stormwater runoff is receiving increased attention from the US EPA, which in 1990 issued the final rule to implement Section 402 (P) of the Clean Water Act. This rule requires cities over 100,000 in population to obtain stormwater permits under the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES). Like all kinds of non-point source pollution, urban stormwater pollution comes from many "diffuse" sources rather than a single "point source" like the wastewater discharge pipe of a factory. While many approaches are being tried by municipalities, one of the least costly and most effective ways to reduce nonpoint source pollution is storm drain stenciling. This approach addresses urban water pollution where it often starts -in the storm drain system of our communities.
#|COCHRAN, MARK CRAIG.  WATER QUALITY OF EAST TEXAS STREAMS: FORESTED VERSUS PASTURED WATERSHEDS RECEIVING POULTRY LITTER APPLICATIONS.  M.S.F., 1996.  Water quality and stream discharge were monitored at six sites on two Nacogdoches County, Texas streams over a nine month period (March-November 1995). Three sites were located in forested watersheds and the other three sites were downstream of pastured watersheds surface-applied with poultry litter, a potential nonpoint source of pollution. Stream water samples were analyzed for Ca, K, Mg, Na. NO$\sb3$-N, TKN, PO$\sb4$-P, TP, TSS, pH, anddissolved oxygen. A rapid bioassessment was conducted to assess aquatic life stream conditions. Half of the 273 stream samples had nitrate-nitrogen concentrations greater than 0.30 mg L$\sp{-1},$ high enough to support excessive aquatic plant growth, but were below the USEPA drinking water standard (10.0 mg L$\sp{-1}).$ However, almost 90% of samples had extremely low phosphate-phosphorus concentrations ($<$0.008 mg L$\sp{-1}),$ which may act as the limiting factor to prevent eutrophic conditions. Other parameters analyzed were within standards recommended by state and federal agencies. Benthic macroinvertebrate species intolerant of stressful conditions were plentiful, indicating good water quality in these streams. Current land management practices appear to have no adverse effects on water quality in the study watersheds.
#|Cockman, Joneen S.  Ephemeral drainages in the southwestern United States : a literature review.  Las Cruces, NM : Agricultural Experiment Station, New Mexico State University, 1997.  Research report / New Mexico State University, Agricultural Experiment Station ; 720 Research report (New Mexico State University. Agricultural Experiment Station) ; 720.
#|Cody, R P ; Bortone, S A.  Masculinization of mosquitofish as an indicator of exposure to kraft mill effluent.  BULLETIN OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY vol. 58, no. 3, pp. 429-436, 1997.  Masculinization (i.e., arrhenoidy) of mosquitofish (Gambusia affinis) from a small stream receiving kraft mill effluent (KME) in northwest Florida has been previously documented (Howell et al. 1980). Responses to their exposure to KME include: precocial maturation of males, incorporated of elements of male reproductive behavior into the female behavioral repertoire, and acquisition of gonopodium-like anal fins in females. Bortone et al. (1980) suggested these responses may be used as a potential bioindicator of KME exposure. The latter characteristic (i.e., gonopodium formation as evidenced by the elongation of the anal fin) remains the most conspicuous indication of exposure to KME among mosquitofish. Moreover, a simple estimate of the degree of masculinization may be obtained from a comparison of the anal fin lengths of unexposed and exposed female mosquitofish (Drydale and Bortone 1989).
#|Coeck, J. Use of the Abundance/Biomass Method for Comparison of Fish Communities in Regulated and Unregulated Lowland Rivers in Belgium.  Regul Rivers: Res Manag  v8, n1-2, p73(10), May 93.  The abundance/biomass comparison (ABC) method holds that the distribution of numbers of individuals among species behaves differently from the distribution of biomass among species when influenced by pollution-induced disturbance. The ABC method to detect disturbance in river ecosystems caused by river regulation was investigated by applying it to data for fish communities in regulated and nonregulated rivers in Belgium. Results indicated that the method is a good indicator for the disturbance of fish communities because of the loss of physical habitat resulting from river regulation. A significant positive correlation was found between the ABC index and the sum of the scores for pool-riffle and cover for nine unpolluted river sites. As the water quality of a regulated river decreased downstream from the polluting discharge, the ABC index decreased. The calculated ABC index provides more information on the effect of a stressor on the fish community than abundance or biomass alone.
#|Cohen P, Andriamahefa H, Wasson JG.  Towards a regionalization of aquatic habitat: Distribution of mesohabitats at the scale of a large basin.  REGULATED RIVERS-RESEARCH & MANAGEMENT 14: (5) 391-404 SEP-OCT 1998.  Integrated management of aquatic ecosystems is a common concern for water resources managers as well as for researchers. The 1992 French Water Act aims to preserve the biotic and ecological integrity of aquatic ecosystems as part of water management schemes, creating needs for new methodologies for studying these systems. This paper describes the partitioning of the Loire basin (105000 km(2), France) into hydro-ecoregions tested at the mesohabitat scale. The following null hypotheses were examined in the four largest hydro-ecoregions of the basin: (I) differences in mesohabitat types distribution do not exist between regions; (2) the longitudinal structure of mesohabitat types distribution is not different between regions; and (3) the factors governing distribution and longitudinal evolution of mesohabitats distribution are not different between regions.  It was found that the four regions behaved in different ways in terms of distribution and longitudinal evolution of mesohabitats. Valley slope and stream order, the two tested control variables, do not play the same role in each region. If the region contains mainly alluvial rivers, slope and/or order do explain or predict mesohabitat distributions. If the region contains cohesive rivers, these factors do not, or poorly explain, mesohabitat distributions. Since predictive models cannot be developed in most regions for mesohabitat distributions, it is necessary to build descriptive models at the regional scale. In addition to one regional predictive model, this paper provides such results for three regions of the Loire basin.
#|Coimbra, C N ; Graca, M A S ; Cortes, R M.  The effects of a basic effluent on macroinvertebrate community structure in a temporary Mediterranean river.  ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION vol. 94, no. 3, pp. 301-307, 1996.  Macroinvertebrate communities and environmental variables were assessed seasonally for 1 year in a temporary river in South Portugal receiving an effluent with high conductivity, pH, sulphates, nitrates and low oxygen content. The usefulness of the ordination method canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) and the classification method cluster analysis (UPGMA) were examined to evaluate the perturbation.  Macroinvertebrate samples were segregated along the first ordination axis by CCA, which in turn correlated with sulphates and nitrates. CCA produced a two-dimensional distribution of sites similar to the grouping formed by cluster analysis. In general, three or four groups were distinguished. Immediately downstream of the effluent discharge point, only taxa tolerant to low oxygen, high pH and high sulphate and nitrate concentrations were present. Further downstream, sites had a community similar to the reference sampling locations. During flowing conditions the CCA ordination axis 1 was also correlated with several classic measures of water quality (i.e. taxon richness, diversity and biotic indices). In other periods, only the percentage of Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera and Trichoptera (%EPT) and the ratioEPT/(Chironomidae + EPT) were significantly correlated with CCA axis one. This suggests that ordination methods outperform benthic indices in detecting pollution during low flows and segregated polluted from clean/recovered sites in all periods.
#|Conrad, R ; Buechel, C ; Wilhelm, C ; Arsalane, W ; Berkaloff, C ; Duval, J C.  Changes in yield of in-vivo fluorescence of chlorophyll a as a tool for selective herbicide monitoring.  JOURNAL OF APPLIED PHYCOLOGY vol. 5, no. 5, pp. 505-516, 1993.  Triazines and derivatives of phenylurea, which are often found in outdoor water samples, induce specific changes in the yield of the in-vivo chlorophyll a-fluorescence of PSII. These changes are correlated quantitatively with the concentration of the herbicides and can therefore be used to set-up a low-price monitor system. In order to detect selectively the herbicide-sensitive part of the fluorescence emission a pulse amplitude modulated fluorimeter was used. The bioassay system was optimised with respect to test organism, growing and measuring conditions. The relationship between fluorescence yield and herbicide concentrations were experimentally determined for the triazines atrazine and simazine and the phenylurea herbicide DCMU and mathematically fitted (r = 0.99). The I sub(50)-values were 0.9 mu M for DCMU, 2.2 mu M for simazine and 3.3 mu M for atrazine. The detection limit of about 0.5 mu M clearly shows that the sensitivity of this bioassay system is too low to reach the requirements of the drinking water regulation. However, due to its insensitivity against complex water matrices, there is good hope to combine this fluorometric bioassay with a potent herbicide preconcentration method likea solid-phase extraction procedure.
#|Constable, J., Divakarla, R., & Grace, A. (1993). Wastewater Management in the Chemical Industry.  15th Federal Convention, Australian Water and Wastewater Association, Volume 3.  Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia, April 18-23, 1993, p 631-634. The ICI Australia (ICIA) approach to wastewater management is discussed. In the past, Cleaner Production initiatives have enabled most ICI sites to comply with wastewater discharge criteria. However, with the announcement of ambitious environmental objectives in 1990, including a 50% reduction in waste by 1995, systematic means for identifying and implementing Cleaner Production are required. For existing plants, this entails development and implementation of a Wastewater Management Plan. For new plants, emphasis on waste reduction during initial process design is required. Case studies involving acrylates and ammonium nitrate manufacturing facilities are discussed.
#|COOPER DC; COPELAND BJ. Responses of continuous-series estuarine microecosystems to point-source input variations. ECOL MONOGR; 43 (2). 1973 213-236.  Six continuous-series microecosystems, each containing 5 cells, were constructed to simulate hydrological factors of estuarine regions. Exchange and retention characteristics were adjusted to closely model the hydrological considitons of Trinity Bay, Texas (USA). The metabolic and structural responses of the microecosystem communities to quantitative and qualitative changes in freshwater input were investigated. Primary production and community respiration in the 1st 3 cells of the microecosystems were dependent on both quantity and quality of freshwater input, whereas primary production and community respiration in thesaltwater portions (cells 4,5) of the microecosystems werevirtually independent of the quantity and quality of freshwater input. Metabolism of the freshwater portions of the microecosystems was heterotrophic under normal flow conditions and autotrophic under drought conditions. Addition of an industrial effluent to the freshwater inputs resulted in extensives hifts towards metabolic heterotrophy of the more freshwater portions of the microecosystems. Metabolism of the saltwater cells was heterotrophic under all conditions of freshwater input. The upstream communities wereadapted to a dependency on allochthonous materials input for production and respiration maintenance.  Retarding freshwater input resulted in tying up larger portions of the nutiient pool within the systems in living components.  Addition of industrial effluent increased the community maintenance requirements. Retarding freshwater input acted as anenvironmental stress on the 1st 3 cells of the microecosystems. Magnitudes of production and respiration were significantly lower, and zooplankton standing crops and species diversity decreased significantly. Addition of industrial effluent produced similar effects. Decreased freshwater input rate (primary stress) rendered the receiving communities more susceptible to the industrial effluent addition (secondary stress). The organismal composition of the microecosystems was qualitatively similar but quantitatively dissimilar to the organismal composition of Trinity Bay. Becauseof fundamental similarities in all living systems, the observed responses might be especially representative of those which would occur in Trinity Bay if subjected to similar hydrological alterations.
#|COSSON RP.  HEAVY-METAL INTRACELLULAR BALANCE AND RELATIONSHIP WITH METALLOTHIONEIN INDUCTION IN THE GILLS OF CARP - AFTER CONTAMINATION BY AG, CD, AND HG FOLLOWING PRETREATMENT WITH ZN OR NOT.  BIOLOGICAL TRACE ELEMENT RESEARCH 46: (3) 229-245 DEC 1994.  Determination of metal levels (Cu, Zn, Cd, Ag, Hg) in soluble and insoluble fractions of gill homogenates has been performed after 7 d exposure of carp (Cyprinus carpio) to moderate concentrations of Cd, Ag, and Hg in water. Metallothionein levels have been quantified by polarographic method before and after contamination and a subsequent decontamination phase (7 d). The influence of pretreatment by zinc (7 d) has also been evaluated. Metallothionein level variations have been interpreted as having regard to interrelated flows of metal between subcellular fractions. Special interest has been focused on heat-stable compound (HSC)-bound heavy metal flows within the cytosol, taking in account that MT is the major component of these ligands. Our data showed differences between the ability of metals to bind cytosolic ligands and HSCs, and their respective potency for MT induction in gill. Regardless of pretreatment, mercury gave the highest increase of gill MT, and after the decontamination MT level remained high compared to control.  Cadmium and silver gave similar increases, but a significant difference with control appeared only after the decontamination step with silver, whereas 1 week of contamination was enough for cadmium. Our experimental conditions gave the following order of potency for MT induction in gill: Hg >> Cd > Ag > Zn.
#|Cossu, C.; Doyotte, A.; Jacquin, M. C.; Babut, M.; Exinger, A.; Vasseur, P.  Glutathione Reductase.  Selenium-Dependent Glutathione Peroxidase, Glutathione Levels, and Lipid Peroxidation in Freshwater Bivalves, Unio tumidus, as Biomarkers of Aquatic Contamination in Field Studies.  Ecotoxicol Environ Saf  v38, n2, p122(10), Nov 97.  Antioxidant parameters were measured in the digestive glands and gills of the freshwater bivalve Unio tumidus from uncontaminated sites, prior to relocation for 15 or 30 days to sites having sediment contaminated by industrial and municipal effluents. All parameters were depressed after 15 days of exposure to contaminated sediment, especially selenium-dependent glutathione peroxidase, glutathione reductase, and glutathione activities.  The decreases were associated with the presence of PAHs and PCBs in sediment, and with increased lipid peroxidation in the gills. In general, the digestive gland was less sensitive than the gill. Exposure for 30 days showed that the depressed parameters remained low. In addition, non-selenium-dependent glutathione peroxidase and catalase were induced in gills, showing that the mussels were adapting to the contaminated conditions. The antioxidants that were reduced by exposure to contaminated sediment, and lipid peroxidation could be monitored as biological indicators of toxicity.
#|Costan,-G.; Bermingham,-N.; Blaise,-C.; Ferard,-J.-F.  Potential Ecotoxic Effects Probe (PEEP): a Novel Index to Assess and Compare the Toxic Potential of Industrial Effluents. Environmental Toxicology and Water Quality, Vol. 8, No. 2, p 115-140, May 1993. An index allowing the assessment and comparison of the toxic potential of industrial effluents is described. Integrating the results of practical small-scale screening bioassays (Photobacterium phosphoreum Microtox test, Selenastrum capricornutum growth inhibition microtest, Ceriodaphnia dubia lethality and reproduction inhibition tests, Escherichia coli genotoxicity SOS Chemotest), this index takes into account persistence of toxicity, (multi)specificity of toxic impact, and effluent flow. The resulting Potential Ecotoxic Effects Probe (PEEP) index number is reflected by a log value that varies from 0 to infinity but normally will not surpass a value of 10. The structure of the mathematical formula generating PEEP values is simple and 'user friendly' in that it can accommodate numbers and types of bioassays to fit particular needs. Thirty-seven effluents from eight industrial sectors (pulp and paper, petroleum refining, inorganic/organic chemical production, mining, metallurgy, metal plating, and textile production) were compared with the proposed PEEP scale. The pulp and paper sector effluents markedly stood out from the others owing to their greater toxicity and higher discharge volume, with reported PEEP values lying between 4.4 and 7.5. For most of these effluents, toxicity was found to be persistent, multitrophic (i.e., affecting the bacterial, algal, and crustacean bioindicators), and it expressed itself at all levels of assessment (i.e., lethal, acute, sublethal, chronic sublethal, and genotoxic levels).
#|Couillard, C M ; Hodson, P V ; Gagnon, P ; Dodson, J J.  Lesions and parasites in white suckers, Catostomus commersoni, in bleached-kraft pulp mill-contaminated and reference rivers.  ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY vol. 14, no. 6, pp. 1051-1060, 1995.  The objective of this study was to determine if the prevalences of lesions and parasites were different in white suckers (Catostomus commersoni) living upstream and downstream from a bleached-kraft pulp mill in the St. Maurice River, Quebec, Canada. Fish were sampled from two downstream and one upstream sites and were examined internally and externally. Fish living downstream from the mill had more abundant visceral fat, a higher prevalence of deformed fin rays, and a higher prevalence of black livers than fish caught upstream. They were also more frequently infested by intestinal parasites and less frequently infested by larvae of the nematode Eustrongylides in the mesentery. These changes could not be associated specifically to exposure to the pulp mill effluent since they were either explained by among-site differences in fish length or by an upstream-downstream ecological gradient other than the effluent gradient. This ecological gradient was demonstrated by comparison with a reference river, the Gatineau, that had similar physical characteristics but no pulp mill.
#|Couillard, C M ; Hodson, P V.  Pigmented macrophage aggregates: A toxic response in fish exposed tobleached-kraft mill effluent?  ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY vol. 15, no. 10, pp. 1844-1854, 1996.  An epidemiological study was conducted to evaluate whether the density of pigmented macrophage aggregates (PMAs) and the prevalences of preneoplastic and neoplastic lesions increased in fish captured downstream from a bleached-kraft pulp mill, causing induction of cytochrome P4501A enzymes (CYP1A). White suckers (Catostomus commersoni) sampled 10 and 95 km downstream from a bleached-kraft pulp mill in the St. Maurice River, Quebec, Canada, exhibited higher densities of PMAs relative to age in liver, spleen, and kidney thanfish sampled 10 km upstream. White suckers were also sampled at three sites in the Gatineau River, Quebec, Canada, a reference river with a similar upstream/downstream ecological gradient but no pulp mill. In the Gatineau, density of PMAs was lower in the liver of fish sampled at the most downstream site, and there was no difference among sites in spleen and kidney. Higher growth rates have been documented at downstream sites of both rivers and thus cannot explain the increased density of PMAs observed at downstream sites of the St. Maurice River only. Density of PMAs did not differ between sexes or between fish with or without grossly visible parasites or granulomatous histological lesions. Although we cannot exclude the involvement of unknown infectious agents, density of PMAs appears to be a useful marker of bleached-kraft mill effluent (BKME) toxicity. Several known toxic effects of BKME could contribute to this response, including increased rates of lipid peroxidation associated with induced CYP1A and toxic hemolysis. Further field and laboratory studies are needed to evaluate whether the association between BKME exposure, induction of CYP1A, and increased density of PMA is consistent. Preneoplastic lesions were not observed in fish captured downstream of the pulp mill in the St. Maurice River, and only one case of biliary carcinoma was observed, at the most contaminated site.
#|Covich AP, Fritz SC, Lamb PJ, Marzolf RD, Matthews WJ, Poiani KA, Prepas EE, Richman MB, Winter TC.  Potential effects of climate change on aquatic ecosystems of the Great Plains of North America.  HYDROLOGICAL PROCESSES 11: (8) 993-1021 JUN 30 1997.  The Great Plains landscape is less topographically complex than most other regions within North America, but diverse aquatic ecosystems, such as playas, pothole lakes, ox-bow lakes, springs, groundwater aquifers, intermittent and ephemeral streams, as well as large rivers and wetlands, are highly dynamic and responsive to extreme climatic fluctuations. We review the evidence for climatic change that demonstrates the historical importance of extremes in north-south differences in summer temperatures and east-west differences in aridity across four large subregions. These physical driving forces alter density stratification, deoxygenation, decomposition and salinity. Biotic community composition and associated ecosystem processes of productivity and nutrient cycling respond rapidly to these climatically driven dynamics. Ecosystem processes also respond to cultural effects such as dams and diversions of water for irrigation, waste dilution and urban demands for drinking water and industrial uses. Distinguishing climatic from cultural effects in future models of aquatic ecosystem functioning will require more refinement in both climatic and economic forecasting. There is a need, for example, to predict how long-term climatic forecasts (based on both ENSO and global warming simulations) relate to the permanence and productivity of shallow water ecosystems. Aquatic ecologists, hydrologists, climatologists and geographers have much to discuss regarding the synthesis of available data and the design of future interdisciplinary research.
#|Crain, B.R.; Woods, M.  Establishment of permit limits for mill effluent.  ENVIRON. MANAGE  VOL. 19, NO. 2, pp. 273-279, 1995.  Various governmental regulatory agencies are responsible for establishing regulations on the discharge of chlorinated organic compounds from pulp and paper mills.  The procedures for setting permit limits are the basic topic of this article.  Different methods of determining permit limits are set forth and discussed in a number of references, including documents of the Environmental Protection Agency. This paper discusses in detail the application of one particular methodology--the lognormal model approach. In this paper we utilize a real data set and include the necessary calculations required toset uppermit limits. The basic tenets of the permit process are such that if limits are set too low, operators who are in full regulatory compliance will still be frequently cited, and if limits are set too high, operators who are not in compliance will seldom if ever be cited.  Thus there is a great need for these effluent limits to be determined with great care, both to protect the environment receiving the wastewater and the industry producing the wastewater.
#|Crawford, C. G.; Wangsness, D. J.  Effects of advanced treatment of municipal wastewater on the White river near Indianapolis, Indiana: trends in water quality, 1978-86.  Water Supply Papers - US Geological Survey (No. 2393):  23 pp. 1993.  A nonparametric statistical procedure-a modified formof the lcoxon-Mann-Whitney rank-sum test-was used to test for trends in times-series water-quality data from 4 sites on the White river and from the Belmont and Southport wastewater treatment plants, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA, where upgraded secondary treatment processes (oxygen-nitrification systems and ozone disinfection) had been in operation since 1983. Time-series data representative of preadvanced-(1978-1980) and postadvanced- (1983-1986) wastewater-treatment conditions were tested for trends, and the results indicate substantial changes in water quality of treated effluent and the White river downstream from Indianapolis after implementation of advanced wastewater treatment. Water quality at sample sites located upstream from the wastewater-treatment plants was relatively constant during the period of study (1978-1986).  Analysis of data from the two plants and downstream from the plants indicates statistically significant decreasing trends in effluent concn of total ammonia, 5-day BOD, fecal coliforms, total phosphate and total solids at all sites where sufficient data were available for analysis.  Because of in-plant nitrification, increases in nitrate concn were statistically significant in the 2 plants and in the White river.  Following implementation of advanced wastewater treatment, the number of river water quality samples that failed to meet the water-quality standards for ammonia and dissolved oxygen that apply to the White river decreased significantly.
#|Croce, B.; Stagg, R. M.; Everall, N. C.; Groman, D. B.; Mitchell, C. G.; Owen, R.  Ecotoxicological determination of pigmented salmon syndrome.  A pathological condition of Atlantic salmon associated with river pollution.  Ambio  vol. 26 (8):  p.505-510, 1997. Pigmented salmon syndrome is described in this review.  It is a non-infectious haemolytic anaemia with associated clinical jaundice of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar), caused by exposure to a combination of chemical pollutants.  The disease has been restricted to the migrating adult Atlantic salmon population of the River Don, Aberdeenshire, Scotland, UK, where it reached epidemic proportions in the early 1980s. Effluents from paper mills, from the oil-servicing industry and from an airport were implicated as causative factors in the syndrome. Subsequent experiments showed that symptoms of the syndrome could be reproduced by the sequential or combined exposure to petroleum hydrocarbons (such as diesel) and resin acids. The pigmented salmon syndrome has not recurred in wild River Don salmon since 1989. Research suggests that this is due to directed improvements in the water quality of the River Don. The disease appears to be an example of how multiple contaminants can collectively cause biological effects which are not apparent from exposure to single substances.
#|Crook, J ; Surampalli, R Y.  Water reclamation and reuse criteria in the U.S.  WATER RECLAMATION AND REUSE 1995. Angelakis, A ; Asano, T ; Diamadopoulos, E ; Tchobanoglous, G (eds ). WATER SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY vol. 33, no. 10-11 pp. 451-462, 1996.  IAWQ 2. Int. Symp. on Wastewater Reclamation and Reuse.  Iraklio, Crete (Greece), 1995 Oct 17-20.  Increasing demands on water resources for domestic, commercial, industrial, and agricultural purposes have made water reclamation and reuse an attractive option for conserving and extending available water supplies. Also, many water reuse projects are implemented to eliminate a source of contamination in surface waters or as a least-cost alternative to meeting stringent discharge requirements. Reclaimed water applications range from pasture irrigation to augmentation of potable water supplies. Water reclamation and reuse criteria are principally directed at health protection. There are no federal regulations governing water reuse in the U.S.  hence, the regulatory burden rests with the individual states. This has resulted in differing standards among states that have developed criteria. This paper summarizes and compares the criteria from some states that have developed comprehensive regulations. Guidelines published by the US. EPA and the rationale behind them are presented for numerous types of reclaimed water applications.
#|Cross, S.  Aquatic macroinvertebrates and water quality of Sandia Canyon, Los Alamos National Laboratory, November 1993--October 1994  (PROGRESS REPT).  Department of Energy, Washington, DC.  Report No.: LA-12971-SR.  Aug 95,  58p.  The Ecological Studies Team (EST) of ESH-20 at Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL) has collected samples from the stream within Sandia Canyon since the summer of 1990. These field studies gather water quality measurements and collect aquatic macroinvertebrates from permanent sampling sites.  Reports by Bennett (1994) and Cross (1994) discuss previous EST aquatic studies in Sandia Canyon. This report updates and expands those findings.  EST collected water quality data and aquatic macroinvertebrates at five permanent stations within the canyon from November 1993 through October 1994.  The two upstream stations are located below outfalls that discharge industrial and sanitary waste effluent into the stream, thereby maintaining year-round flow. Some water quality parameters are different at the first three stations from those expected of natural streams in the area, indicating degraded water quality due to effluent discharges. The aquatic habitat at the upper stations has also been degraded by sedimentation and channelization.  The macroinvertebrate communities at these stations are characterized by low diversities and unstable communities.  In contrast, the two downstream stations appear to be in a zone of recovery, where water quality parameters more closely resemble those found in natural streams of the area. The two lower stations have increased macroinvertebrate diversity and stable communities, further indications of downstream water quality improvement.
#|Culp, J M ; Podemski, C L. Design and application of a novel stream microcosm system for assessing effluent impacts to large rivers.  ENVIRONMENTAL FATE AND EFFECTS OF PULP AND PAPER MILL EFFLUENTS. Servos, M R ; Munkittrick, K R ; Carey, J H ; van der Kraak, G J  (eds ). pp. 549-555, 1996.  International Conference on Environmental Fate and Effects of Bleached Pulp Mill Effluents.  Vancouver, British Columbia (Canada), 1994 Nov 6-10.  ST. LUCIE PRESS: DELRAY BEACH, FL. The high degree of spatial heterogeneity and the challenge of obtaining true replicates make it difficult to predict or to quantify the impacts of complex effluents on riverine biota. We have developed an experimental stream system that simulates the riverine environment for the purpose of assessing the impacts of effluent discharges on large rivers. This transportable outdoor system is established beside the study river, providing ambient water temperature and light regimes.  The system is comprised of 16 circular 0.9 m super(2) streams, allowing for adequate replication. Current velocity is provided by an inexpensive belt-driven propeller that can produce mid-water velocities exceeding 20 cm /sec. The system is partially recirculating and the water depth and hydraulic residence times are easily adjusted. By increasing water residence time within the streams, the volume of toxic effluents or contaminants required during an experiment can be minimized. We have used this system to investigate the nutrient and contaminant effects of treated effluents from kraft pulp mills on complex food webs in the Athabasca River, Alberta, Canada. Multiple trophic-level effects are examined by seeding the tanks with natural substrata and biota (i.e., biofilm, invertebrates, fish) from the river.
#|Culp, Joseph M.  Podemski, Cheryl L.; Casey, Carol.  Design and application of a transportable experimental stream system for assessing effluent impacts on riverine biota / prepared for the Northern River Basins Study under project 2611-C1.  Northern River Basins Study project report, no. 128.  (Canada)  Edmonton :  The Study, [1996].
#|Culp, T.; Cox, W.; Hwang, H.; Irwin, M.; Jones, A.  1992.  Environmental monitoring report, Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, New Mexico.  Department of Energy, Washington, DC. Contract Number: SAND-93-1448, Contract AC04-94AL85000.  NTIS/DE94001862, 320p. This 1992 report contains monitoring data from routine radiological and nonradiological environmental surveillance activities. summaries of significant environmental compliance programs in progress, such as National Environmental Policy Act documentation, environmental permits, envirorunental restoration, and various waste management programs for Sandia National Laboratories in Albuquerque, New Mexico, are included. The maximum offsite dose impact was calculated to be 0.0034 millirem. The total population within a 50-mile radius of Sandia National Laboratories/New Mexico received an estimated collective dose of 0.019 person-rem during 1992 from the laboratories' operations. As in the previous year, the 1992 operations at Sandia National Laboratories/New Mexico had no discernible impact on the general public or on the environment. Sponsored by Department of Energy, Washington, DC.
#|Cun, C., & Vilagines, R.C.  1998.  Time Series Analysis of Chlorides, Nitrates, Ammonium and DO.  Sci Total Environ v208, n1-2, p59(11). Data on the concentrations of ammonium, nitrates, chlorides, and DO were obtained for the Seine River just upstream of Paris, France, for the period 1901-93, and the load values were obtained by multiplying the concentration values with the corresponding water flows. Simple graphical and numerical studies were conducted to evaluate the type and dates of changes and the trends. For each parameter over the study period, the average, median, minima, and maxima values were calculated. No seasonality was observed in the data. The changes in ammonium concentrations were attributed to human and industrial activities, while those for nitrates were attributed to urbanization, animal husbandry, and mineral fertilizers. Similar results were found for chlorides levels.
#|Curtis, M.D.; Klei, H.E.; Cooney, J.D.; Ertl, R.  Reduction of effluent toxicity for a printed circuit board facility.  ENVIRON. PROG  VOL. 14, NO. 2, pp. 80-83, 1995.  Resulting from 1987 modifications of the Clean Water Act, whole effluent toxicity became a new parameter for numerous NPDES discharges. Recently, a Connecticut printed circuit board manufacturer undertook whole effluent toxicity testing and subsequently, an effluent Toxicity Identification and Reduction Evaluation (TI/RE). The TI/RE consisted of parallel efforts to eliminate or reduce the sources of effluent toxicity to a vertebrate and aninvertebrate species. Testing showed that effluent toxicity to the fathead minnow, Pimephales promelas, and the daphnid, Daphnia pulex, was due to different causes. The primary toxicant identified in fathead minnow testing was shown to be unionized ammonia, generated primarily from circuit board etchant rinse processes. The primary toxicant in daphnid testing was shown to be an organic surfactant/defoamer used in the resist strip process. Efforts to identify the organic surfactant were successful and resulted in the isolation of a phosphate ester as the primary cause of toxicity to the daphnids.  Product substitution was easily accomplished and resulted in marked reduction of effluent toxicity to Daphnia pulex. To reduce effluent ammonia toxicity, etchant rinse ammonia loadings will be reduced or eliminated from the process.
#|Cuthbert, I. D., & Kalff, J. M. U. M. P. C.  1993.  Empirical Models for Estimating the Concentrations and Exports.  Water Air Soil Pollut v71, n3-4, p205(26). Empirical models are developed that describe the quantitative relationships between riverine metal concentrations and general water-quality variables, such as suspended particulate matter, turbidity, color, temperature, and pH. Model development is based on data collected at 24 river sites in Ontario and Quebec, Canada. Pairwise correlation coefficients for metal concentrations and environmental variables were established. The metals considered were aluminum, iron, manganese, zinc, and copper. The models for each metal are described. Results indicated that the Fe and Al models explained approximately 85 and 90% of the variation in riverine concentrations, respectively. Approximately 57 and 37% of the variations in Mn and Zn, respectively, were predicted. Overall, the models tended to overestimate Fe and Al concentrations in the Quebec rivers and to underestimate Mn and Zn. Model applications and limitations are discussed.
#|Dalal, R., & Bhattacharya, S.  (1994).  Effect of cadmium, mercury, and zinc on the hepatic microsomal enzymes of Channa punctatus.  BULLETIN OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY vol. 52, no. 6, pp. 893-897. The increased use of heavy metals like cadmium and mercury in industry and agriculture, and their subsequent intrusion in indeterminate amounts into the environment has caused ecological and biological changes. In vivid contrast, zinc, one of the essential elements, and used in the cosmetic industry, is known to play to pivotal roles in various cellular processes. The seriousness and longevity of these metals in the environment are compounded by the fact that they are non-degradable with significant oxidizing capacity and substantial affinity for electronegative nucleophilic species in proteins and enzymes. Exposure of aquatic animals, especially fish, to these toxic metals for a prolonged period produces an intrinsic toxicity in relation to susceptible organs and / or tissues, although no serious morphological or anatomical changes in the animal or even their feeding behavior may occur. The p-hydroxylation of aniline by aniline hydroxylase (AH) and the N-demethylation of amines to generate formaldehyde (HCHO) by aminopyrine demethylase (APD) are the two oxygen-dependent reactions of microsomal mixed-function oxidase (MFOs) which control the pharmacological and toxicological activities of xenobiotics in mammalian and other species. While both these classical enzymes in fish are reported to demonstrate relatively low specific activity, they are used as criteria for delineating polluted areas. Unlike mammalian species, however, intoxication and interference of MFO enzymes by metal toxicants, especially during prolonged exposure, has not been investigated. The present report describes the results of studies from the concurrent exposure for 28 d to cadmium (CdCl sub(2)), mercury (HgCl sub(2)) or zinc (ZnCl sub(2)) individually, on the AH and APD activities and microsomal protein content in liver of freshwater teleost Channa punctatus (Bloch).
#|Daniel T C; Sharpley A N; Lemunyon J L.  Agricultural phosphorus and eutrophications (November 1996) A symposium overview. Journal of Environmental Quality  27 (2):p251-257 March-April, 1998.  Phosphorus in runoff from agricultural land is an important component of nonpoint-source pollution and can accelerate eutrophication of lakes and streams. Long-term land application of P as fertilizer and animal wastes has resulted in elevated levels of soil P in many locations in the USA. Problems with soils high in P are often aggravated by the proximity of many of these areas to P-sensitive water bodies, such as the Great Lakes, Chesapeake and Delaware Bays, Lake Okeechobee, and the Everglades. This paper provides a brief overview of the issues and options related to management of agricultural P that were discussed at a special symposium titled, "Agricultural Phosphorus and Eutrophication," held at the November 1996 American Society of Agronomy annual meetings. Topics discussed at the symposium and reviewed here included the role of P in eutrophication; identification of P-sensitive water bodies; P transport mechanisms; chemical forms and fate of P; identification of P source areas; modeling of P transport; water quality criteria; and management of soil and manure P, off-farm P inputs, and P transport processes.
#|Daston G.P., Baines D., Elmore E., Fitzgerald M.P., and Sharma S.  (1995).  Evaluation of chick embryo neural retina cell culture as a screen for developmental toxicants. Fundamental and Applied Toxicology;  26/2 (203-210).This paper describes a study to evaluate the concordance with in vivo results of an in vitro screen for developmental toxicants. The screen is a primary culture of chick embryo neural retina cells (CERC) which undergo processes of cell-cell recognition and interaction, growth, and differentiation over a 7-day culture period. Each of these developmentally significant events is measured separately as formation of multicellular aggregates, protein content, and glutamine synthetase activity, respectively. A total of 45 chemicals, 24 of which have been shown to be teratogenic at some dosage to mammalian embryos in utero, 7 of which are embryotoxic (but not teratogenic) in utero at high dosage, and 14 of which have not produced developmental toxicity in vivo, were evaluated in this assay by investigators who were blinded to the identity of the chemicals. Chemicals were tested up to concentrations that were frankly cytolethal, or up to a maximum of 5 mg/ml. Chemicals were present only during the first 24 hr of culture. The chemicals were selected to be representative of a variety of chemical classes (e.g., solvents, metals, food additives, anticonvulsants, antineoplastics). In several cases, pairs of structurally similar compounds with different developmental toxic potencies (e.g., valproate and 2-en-valproate, formamide, and N,N-dimethylformamide) were tested. Of the 31 developmental toxicants, 25 affected at least one endpoint in the assay at concentrations which are achievable in vivo (i.e., below the systemic concentration at a lethal dose), yielding a false-negative rate of 19%. Two of the nondevelopmental toxicants, saccharin, and penicillin G, had adverse effects at concentrations below those that may be biologically achievable in vivo, giving a false-positive rate of 14%. Overall concordance with in vivo results by these criteria was 82%. Quantitative comparisons were also made between the lowest observed effect concentration (LOEC) in the assay and (i) lowest developmentally toxic dosage (mostly ip) reported in rats or mice in vivo and (ii) LOEC in rodent whole embryo culture. In the first instance, 77% of the LOECs (LOELs) were within an order of magnitude and 93% were within a factor of 30. In the second instance 81% of the LOECs were within an order of magnitude. Potency ranking of four alkoxy acids was comparable in CERC and the in vivo rodent embryo. These results indicate that the CERC assay is concordant with developmental toxic potential and potency for the diverse group of compounds selected, and that it could serve as a preliminary screen for developmental toxicity.
#|Davidson GR, Bassett RL, Hardin EL, Thompson DL.  Geochemical evidence of preferential flow of water through fractures in unsaturated tuff, Apache Leap, Arizona.  APPLIED GEOCHEMISTRY 13: (2) 185-195 MAR 1998. The occurrence and significance of aqueous flow through fractures in unsaturated tuff was investigated at the Apache Leap Research Site near Superior, Arizona. Water samples for geochemical and isotopic analysis were collected from water seeping from fractures in a mine haulage tunnel, from the saturated zone in a vertical borehole (USW UZP-4), and from both the unsaturated and saturated zones in an angled borehole (DSB). The geochemistry and C-14 activity of water samples from the DSB suggest that most of the recharge to the saturated zone has occurred through fractures, especially beneath the ephemeral streams. Evidence of substantial recent recharge through fractures was found in saturated-zone samples from the mine haulage tunnel using H-3, delta(34)S and SO42-/Cl- analyses. Evidence of partial imbibition of fracture flow into the rock matrix was found at multiple depths throughout the 147 m unsaturated zone at the DSB using geophysical measurements from the borehole, water-content analyses from core samples, and C-14 and H-3 analyses from pore water extracted front preserved core samples. Post-bomb C-14 activity was measured in pore water near fractures just above the saturated zone.
#|Davis, J R.  Revitalization of a northcentral Texas river, as indicated by benthic macroinvertebrate communities.  HYDROBIOLOGIA vol. 346, no. 1-3, pp. 95-117, 1997.  Macrobenthic communities were surveyed in 1987-88 as part of a comprehensive study of fish kills and water quality in the upper Trinity River. The purpose was to characterize macrobenthic integrity in relation to ambient and storm-associated water quality and other environmental factors. No physical habitat features were found to be substantially limiting to aquatic life. Water and sediment quality generally were good, and macrobenthic communities typically were healthy. Ecological conditions were vastly improved compared to the recent past, attributable mainly to decreased contaminant loading from wastewater treatment plants and reduced incidence of raw sewage bypassing. Nonetheless, some impact was evident in certain reaches.  Deleterious effects at Beach St. evidently resulted from pesticides derived from urban runoff. Slight impacts by dissolved metals were suggested for Grand Prairie and Continental Ave. possible sources included urban runoff and wastewater treatment plant effluents. Moderate impacts at S. Loop 12 were attributed to low-flow toxicity induced by a wastewater treatment plant discharge ammonia and chlorine were considered primarily responsible, with metals and pesticides possibly involved. Macrobenthic communities were somewhat degraded from Trinidad to US 79, due to storm-related stresses by DO depression, pesticides, and metallic oxides. Overall impacts were relatively slight on a long-term basis, however, and a high aquatic life use was attained at most sites. The degree of macrobenthic integrity was considered remarkable for an effluent-dominated system with such extensive urbanization in the watershed.
#|DAVIS, JG.  Nitrogen Fate and Transformations Game. JOURNAL OF NATURAL RESOURCES AND LIFE SCIENCES EDUCATION; 26 (2).1997. The purpose of the Nitrogen Fate and Transformations Game is to lay the foundation for the improvement of nitrogen (N) management in agricultural and ecological systems through improved understanding of the N cycle. The game illustrates environmental losses to both air and water as well as transformations within the soil system. To win, a player must reach the ultimate goal, plant uptake. All contestants start the game as organic N (the red zone) and go through transformations to ammonium (the yellow zone) and nitrate (the orange zone) on their way to crop uptake (the green zone). But the hazards of volatilization, denitrification, leaching, runoff, and erosion threaten to take them out of the game. The Nitrogen Fate and Transformations Game was designed for extension workshop settings; however, the game could also be used withhigh school and undergraduate audiences to lay a foundation before discussion of water pollution or greenhouse gases. I have used it in a booth at a field day for urban audiences and in my undergraduate course on Nutrient Management of Animal Waste. After a brief overview of the N cycle, the game is played, and discussion on management practices that reduce N losses to air and water follows. Playing the game allows the participants to more fully understand the N cycle and management decision implications that affect N losses and the environment.
#|De Coen, W. M., & Janssen, C. R.  (1997).  The use of biomarkers in Daphnia magna toxicity testing. 2. Digestive enzyme activity in Daphnia magna exposed to sublethal concentrations of cadmium, chromium and mercury.  CHEMOSPHERE vol. 35, no. 5, pp. 1053-1067. The effect of 48h and 96h exposure to sublethal concentrations of CdCl sub(2), HgCl sub(2) and K sub(2)Cr sub(2)O sub(7) on the digestive enzyme activity of Daphnia magna was assessed. Five different digestive enzymes were investigated: cellulase, amylase, beta -galactosidase, trypsin and esterase. Both inhibition (CdCl sub(2) and HgCl sub(2)) and increase (K sub(2)Cr sub(2)O sub(7)) of the enzyme activities were noted after short-term (48h) exposure. No inhibition, however, was observed after prolonged exposure (96h) to HgCl sub(2) and K sub(2)Cr sub(2)O sub(7) and even an increase in activity was noted for CdCl sub(2). The increased digestive enzyme activity probably reflects the test organism's altered food assimilation efficiency in order to cope with the reduced food uptake. The observed changes in the digestive enzyme activity were furthermore evaluated as alternative effect criteria for chronic effect concentrations. Comparison of the enzymatic effect concentrations (1 and 2 enzyme LOEC's) with the LOEC's obtained for chronic reproduction tests (data taken from literature) shows that the concentration where at least 1 enzyme was significantly affected after only 48h exposure, was predictive of the 21 day chronic toxicity values.
#|De la Espino, E O ; Limon, G M ; Castillo Escalante, I.  A simplified procedure for setting effluent quality standards.  WATER QUALITY INTERNATIONAL '94. PART 10: WATER QUALITY MONITORING LAKE MANAGEMENT.  Ballay, D ; Asano, T ; Bhamidimarri, R ; Chin, K K ; Dahlberg, A G ; Grabow, W O K ; Ohgaki, S ; Zotter, K ; Milburn, A ; Izod, E J ; Nagle, P T (eds).  WATER SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY vol. 30, no. 10 pp. 65-72, 1994.  Biennial Conf. of the Int. Association on Water Quality.  Budapest (Hungary), 1994 Jul 24-30.  The discharge of untreated effluents affects the quality of receiving water bodies and impairs their potential beneficial uses to prevent this from happening, effluent quality standards (EQS) must beset. The conventional procedure for establishing EQS requires extensive knowledge of the receiving body characteristics. When there is an evident need for setting EQS, but all the information needed is not available (a situation probably common to many regions around the world), the need arises for a simplified procedure, such as the one herein proposed. The procedure is based on four tenets: 1) the classification of major water quality parameters into four classes:  basic parameters, conservative contaminants, toxic contaminants and pathogens 2) various sets of maximum permissible contaminant concentration (MPCC), for each class of contaminants 3) two comprehensive classifications: one of effluent discharges according totheir origin, and another of receiving waters based on their intended use and general characteristics and 4) a two-dimensional matrix for different classes of effluent discharges and receiving bodies: four indices are proposed for each cell of the matrix, specifying MPCC for each class of parameters.
#|Dell, P ; Power, F ; Donald, R ; McIntosh, J ; Park, S ; Pang, L. Monitoring environmental effects and regulating pulp and paper discharges: Bay of Plenty, New Zealand.  ENVIRONMENTAL FATE AND EFFECTS OF PULP AND PAPER MILL EFFLUENTS. Servos, M R ; Munkittrick, K R; Carey, J H ; van der Kraak, G J  (eds ).  pp. 627-636, 1996.  International Conference on Environmental Fate and Effects of Bleached Pulp Mill Effluents.  Vancouver, British Columbia (Canada), 1994 Nov 6-10.  ST. LUCIE PRESS: DELRAY BEACH, FL.  In October 1991, New Zealand introduced the Resource Management Act (RMA). This legislation represents a comprehensive and integrated approach to "promote the sustainable management of natural and physical resources." Under the RMA the "effect" of an activity is paramount in considering its approval. The preparation of the Tarawera River Regional Plan was initiated because the Tarawera River receives discharges from two pulp and paper mills and a geothermal bore field. A comprehensive monitoring program was designed to assess the impact of the discharges. This included detailed investigations of ecology, toxicity and chemistry within the river and marine environment. While the instream concentrations of pulp mill contaminants are relatively low, chronic impacts on biota consistent with bleached kraft mill effluent exposure are present. Ecological surveys have revealed significant impacts on macroinvertebrate and aquatic plant communities. Large inputs of color degrade the river visually while high effluent oxygen demand occasionally reduces dissolved oxygen concentrations to critical levels. Despite concerns with toxicity, it is the authors' view that the dissolved oxygen and color are the most significant long-term issues facing the management of the river.
#|Derveer, W. D. V., & Canton, S. P. (1997).  Selenium sediment toxicity thresholds and derivation of water quality criteria for freshwater biota of western streams.  Environmental toxicology and chemistry 16(6): 1260.
#|Dhaliwal,-B.S.; Dolan,-R.J.; Smith,-R.W.  A proposed method for improving whole effluent toxicity data interpretation in regulatory compliance. WATER-ENVIRON.-RES. 1995  vol. 67, no. 6, pp. 953-963.  We describe three statistical models for assessing whole effluent toxicity data for National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System compliance purposes. The first model, on which the current regulatory approach is based, only considers intratest variation. The second and third models consider both intratest and intertest sources of variability. We perform a variance components analysis with reference toxicant data to show the relative magnitudes of the intratest and intertest variation. The results indicate that the third model, which is a mixed two-way ANOVA design with test crossed with concentration, is the most appropriate model. With simulations, we show that when using the first statistical model instead of the more suitable third model, the actual Type-1 error can exceed the nominal Type-1 error by a large amount. This means that tests with the first model will tend to produce an excessive number of false indications of toxicity by chance alone. We present and demonstrate a statistical test, called the reliable toxicity detection level (RTDL), that is based on the third statistical model. The RTDL is compared with other statistical measures used to determine compliance to toxicity and chemical effluent limits.
#|Diamond J M, Hall J C, Pattie D M, & Gruber D.  Use of an integrated monitoring approach to determine site-specific effluent metal limits.  Water Environment Research, 66 (5), 1994, p. 733-743. An integrated monitoring approach was implemented for an overland-flow wastewater facility over a 1-year period to determine whether the effluent caused water quality impairment in the receiving system (X-Trib) and appropriate metal effluent limits. The Rapidan Service Authority (Gordonsville, Va.) wastewater effluent comprises approximately 98% of the X-Trib flow under 7Q10 conditions.  Aquatic life in both X-Trib and South Anna River, downstream of the discharge, were previously recorded as heavily impacted prior to the addition of overland-flow treatment. Three forms of monitoring were implemented at this facility: chemical-specific analyses of effluent samples, whole effluent chronic toxicity tests, and stream bioassessments. Two reference streams in the area were also sampled to determine the types of fauna capable of inhabiting the receiving stream. Chemical data suggested elevated levels of copper, cadmium, and lead instream compared to U.S. EPA criteria and Virginia Standards. Chronic toxicity tests, however, often indicated no effects on sensitive EPA indicator species. Stream bioassessments suggested that both habitat and benthic substrate quality were limiting for aquatic biota in the X-Trib. Benthic grab samples and fish sampling suggested ecological impairment due to the effluent. However, introduced benthic substrate studies in the fall and spring indicated no impairment. Thus, the adverse impact observed in benthic samples appeared to be an historical effect of the effluent prior to upgrade, and not an indication of present effluent quality. The biological results indicated that the upgraded plant was in compliance with the goals of the Clean Water Act despite elevated metal levels. High effluent total organic carbon (TOC) was at least partly responsible for this result since even occasional high levels of dissolved metals did not cause toxicity. Our results suggest that following a truly integrated monitoring approach can yield appropriate effluent metal limits on a site-specific basis without necessarily relying on criteria or standards modification studies; state standards for metals, even based on the dissolved fraction. may, in some cases, be overly stringent where other factors are present that reduce the bioavailability of those metals: and setting appropriate standards for effluent-dominated streams requires consideration of effluent characteristics which may affect the bioavailability of pollutants.
#|Diamond Jerome M.; Gerardi Christiana; Leppo Erik; Miorelli Thomas.  Using a water-effect ratio approach to establish effects of an effluent-influenced stream on copper toxicity to the fathead minnow.  Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry  16 (7):p1480-1487 1997.  Water-effect ratio (WER) testing, examining the relative toxicity of copper in various dilutions of effluent and stream water as compared with laboratory dilution water, was conducted during January, April, and June, 1995, to assess the potential of seasonal and flow effects on site water quality and toxicity of copper to the fathead minnow. Total organic carbon (TOC) and dissolved solids were significantly related to effluent concentration in the site water (R-2 = 0.92, p lt 0,01), resulting in higher copper median lethal concentrations (LC50s) and higher WERs as effluent contribution in site water increased. Total recoverable copper LC50s were similar to dissolved copper LC50s in laboratory and upstream water tests (p gt 0.10), while effluent and stream water tests had significantly higher total recoverable than dissolved copper LC50s (p lt 0.01), suggesting more solids or complexing agents when effluent was present. The LC50 and WER for upstream water were significantly higher in April than in January (p lt 0.05), consistent with the higher TOC, alkalinity, and lower stream flow observed during April. The WER tests, using different proportions of upstream water and effluent (tests of additivity) in both January and April, indicated that total recoverable copper WER was predictable under a variety of stream flow conditions.  Dissolved copper WERs were less predictable, in part because effluent and upstream water WERs were similar, particularly in April. Low-flow stream conditions (when effluent concentration was greatest) appeared to be the limiting condition in terms of greatest copper toxicity at this site.  Furthermore, winter low-flow conditions appeared to be more limiting (less water effect on copper toxicity) than similar or even lower flows in spring (April) or summer (June). This was probably due to the higher TOC and dissolved solids present in upstream water in the warmer seasons.  All analyses indicated that copper was at least five times less toxic in the effluent-influenced stream water than in typical laboratory test dilution water. Our data indicate that seasonal effects on water quality, as well as stream flow, can be important in determining limiting conditions on copper toxicity in effluent-dominated stream systems.
#|Diamond, J M ; Koplish, D E ; McMahon, J ,III; Rost, R.  Evaluation of the water-effect ratio procedure for metals in a riverine system.  ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY vol. 16, no. 3, pp. 509-520, 1997. Site-specific metal standards were determined for a part of the lower Lehigh River using the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's water-effect ratio (WER) procedure. The WERs were based on laboratory and site water (collected downstream of the City of Allentown Publicly Owned Treatment Works) testing of the species Ceriodaphnia dubia and Pimephales promelas (fathead minnow) and five metals (copper, cadmium, lead, silver, and zinc) during four different months. Both species generally exhibited similar patterns in WERs. The greatest variability between the two species was observed for copper, silver, and lead. Ceriodaphnia yielded a lower mean WER than the fathead minnow for lead and zinc and WERs similar to those of the fathead minnow for copper, cadmium, and silver. The species more sensitive to a given metal did not always exhibit a higher WER, as had been previously assumed. A comparison of final WER calculations indicated that the geometric mean WER (1983 method) was typically higher than the final WER obtained using the 1994 guidance. For most metals, site water toxicity was reduced due to nonacutely toxic dissolved metal. Copper yielded the highest final WER regardless of the calculation method used. Regressionanalyses indicated that the copper WER was directly related, and the cadmium WER inversely related, to effluent concentration. Copper, lead, and silver WERs were related to site water pH. Cadmium and lead WERs were related to pH and dissolved solids. Zinc WERs were unrelated to any of the water quality variables measured and were similar among site water samples. Our results suggest it is prudent to use two species in WER testing and different site water samples to derive a final WER, particularly at sites that are not effluent dominated.
#|Diamond, J.M.; Mackler, D.G.; Rasnake, W.J.; Gruber, D.  Derivation of site-specific ammonia criteria for an effluent-dominated headwater stream.  ENVIRON. TOXICOL. CHEM  vol. 12, no. 4, pp. 649-658, 1993.  The present study was designed to derive appropriate ammonia standards for a freshwater, wooded stream on the Delmarva Peninsula (eastern shore of the United States) composed almost entirely of wastewater effluent for at least four months of the year. Representative species acute and chronic toxicity tests were performed at 20 degree C (summer) and 12 degree C (winter) to obtain seasonal standards. Acute toxicity tests using fathead minnow and Daphnia magna suggested that the site water had no effect on un-ionized ammonia toxicity.  However, resident species appeared to be relatively insensitive to acute exposure of un-ionized ammonia. Warm-water LC50s adjusted for pH = 8.0 and 20 degree C ranged between 1.02 and 2.73 mg/L for those tests in which an LC50 could be calculated. If acute no-observed-effect concentrations (NOECs) (approximately LC25) were used, bluegill was most sensitive (NOEC = 0.295 mg/L), followed by Crangonyx (amphipod) and Menidia (silverside). Warm-water chronic testing indicated that Rana (leopard frog) was most sensitive, followed by bluegill and amphipod.  Cod-water acute tests yielded definitive LC50s between 0.53 (bluegill) and 1.91 mg/L (amphipod).  Hyla crucifer (spring peeper) and juvenile bluegill were most sensitive in chronic cold-water testing. Final acute values (FAVs) of 0.62 and 0.30 mg/L NH sub(3) were obtained for 20 and 12 degree C, respectively.  The geometric mean of acute-to-chronic ratios (ACR) based on unionized ammonia were 7.2 and 5.7, for 20 and 12 degree C, respectively.  The final chronic values (FCVs) or maximum 4-d average concentrations at 20 and 12 degree C were 0.09 and 0.05 mg/L NH sub(3), respectively.  Un-ionized ammonia acute toxicity to vertebrate freshwater species (fish and tadpoles) was inversely related to temperature, whereas invertebrates often exhibited the opposite trend.  Chronic testing, however, suggested that most species were more sensitive to NH sub(3) at 20 than 12 degree C. This study suggests that the ACR developed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) for warm-water streams may be overly conservative for very small streams in which species diversity is naturally low.
#|Diaz-Baez M C; Roldan F.  Evaluation of the agar plate method for rapid toxicity assessment with some heavy metals and environmental samples.  Environmental Toxicology and Water Quality  11 (3):p259-263 1996.  The use of the agar plate method as a screening test for detecting the toxicity of chromium and copper and of effluents from the tannery industry was evaluated. The bacteria Bacillus cereus and Escherichia coli were used as test organisms. The toxicity of chromium and copper on B. cereus was demonstrated at concentrations as low as 2 and 0.5 mu-g/spot, respectively. A linear relationship between the chromium concentration (mu-g/spot) and the diameter (mm) of the clear inhibition zone on the agar plates was observed between 2 and 20 mu-g for B. cereus and between 10 and 50 mu-g for E. coli. For copper the linear relationship was between 0.5 and 50 mu-g/spot for B. cereus and 5 and 50 mu-g/spot for E. coli. Bacillus cereus was more sensitive than E. coli to these tests. Results with tannery wastes showed that the method is applicable to detect environmental contaminants and the procedure is a convenient and economical tool for screening toxicity of chemical compounds and industrial wastewaters.
#|Dierickx P J. Bredael Rozen E.  Correlation between the in vitro cytotoxicity of inorganic metal compounds to cultured fathead minnow fish cells and the toxicity to Daphnia magna.  Bulletin of Environmental Contamination & Toxicology 57(1). 1996. 107-110.
#|Dilks, D W ; Freedman, P L.  Revised methods considered for aquatic life criteria.  WATER ENVIRONMENT AND TECHNOLOGY vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 27-28, 1994.  An Aquatic Life Criteria Guidelines Committee formed by EPA may substantially change the way toxic discharge limits are set by developing a new procedure for deriving water quality criteria for aquatic life. The new procedure is being considered to reflect advances in the science of the methods used to develop the current instream aquatic criteria that are used in the regulation of toxic discharges in wastewater. The objective of the new procedure is to provide a more rigorous approach to developing exposure and duration criteria that are appropriately protective of aquatic life. Present efforts have focused on deriving a procedure for determining acute toxicity criteria (which consider the short-term, typically lethal effects of contaminants), but chronic criteria (which consider the long-term, damaging, but nonlethal effects of contaminants) also are under reevaluation.
#|Diller, J M. Compliance with NPDES storm water discharge permit requirements. ENVIRONMENTAL PROGRESS vol. 14, no. 1, pp. 41-43, 1995.  The United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) has established the Storm Water Pollution Prevention Plan (SWPPP) as the primary means of regulating the discharge of industrial storm water runoff under the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit program. The SWPPPs are, or will be, a requirement of the facility's NPDES (or state equivalent) permit. Discharge monitoring is currently reserved for only select regulated facilities. These facilities include those subject to EPCRA (SARA) Title III Section 313, land disposal sites and those with other specific categories of industrial activity identified in the regulations. However the permitting authority can, at its discretion, require discharge monitoring for any regulated facility. This paper reviews the requirements for developing and implementing the SWPPPs. Experience obtained from developing the SWPPPs for a wide range of facilities is included. These sites have included commercial and industrial construction sites, regional landfills, small light industrial facilities, and a major industrial complex covering several hundred acres of impervious industrial area. Special focus is given to methods for implementing the SWPPP that can improve the plan's effectiveness in meeting the facility's environmental policy objectives. A brief review of some problems and pitfalls to avoid in compliance monitoring is also included.
#|Dimitrova, I., Kosturkov, J., & Vatralova, A. 1998.  Industrial Surface Water Pollution in the Region of Devnya, Bulgaria.  Water Sci Technol v37, n8, p45(9). Results are presented from a study of industrial surface-water pollution in the industrial region of Devnya, Bulgaria. The focus was on the Provadiiska and Devnya Rivers. The resulting data showed that water-quality parameters were within normal limits upstream of the main discharge sources. Further downstream, however, significant increases were observed in the concentrations of suspended and dissolved solids, pH, total hardness, and the concentrations of chlorides and sulfates. Groundwater sources were also found to be seriously impacted by the industrial discharges, particularly in terms of total solids, sulfates, chlorides, nitrates, sodium, potassium, and total hardness. A wastewater-treatment scheme is developed, which includes: ammonia stripping, chemical precipitation, recarbonization, filtration, chlorination, and aeration.
#|Dobbs M G, Farris J L, Reash R J, Cherry D S, & Cairns J Jr.  Evaluation of the resident-species procedure for developing site-specific water quality criteria for copper in Blaine Creek, Kentucky.  Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 13 (6). 1994.  963-971. Acute toxicity tests were performed on each of nine different organisms in Blaine Creek (Lawrence County, KY) water to determine 48-h LC50 values for copper (Cu). Blaine Creek is the receiving stream for Kentucky Power Company's Big Sandy Plant fly-ash pond discharge. Selection of the nine tested species and integration of the results were based on the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA's) resident-species procedure. The following LC50 (mu-g Cu/L) values were obtained (hardness 100-120 mg/L as CaCO-3): Daphnia pulex 37; Physella sp. 109; Isonychia bicolor 223; Pimephales promelas 284; Stenonema sp. 453; Eurycea bislineata 1,120; Chironomus riparius 1,170; Orconectes sp. 2,370; Lepomis macrochirus 4,300. A final acute value (FAV) of 10.1 mu-g Cu/L (hardness 50 mg/L as CaCO-3) was derived using the Blaine Creek database, which is lower than the EPA's national FAV (18.5 mu-g/L). The differences in FAVs were due to the effect of database size, not differences in the relative sensitivity of test organisms. Our findings provide caution for dischargers who may choose to use the resident-species procedure for future site-specific water-quality-criteria demonstrations. The resident-species procedure, because of the inherent conservative bias of the calculation process, tends to produce more stringent criteria when used on a site-specific basis. A modified recalculation procedure, in conjunction with site-specific metal bioavailability data, was judged to be the most appropriate method for deriving site-specific Cu criteria for Blaine Creek.
#|Doerr, S M ; Effler, S W.  Forecasting impacts of a hypolimnetic wastewater discharge on lake water quality.  LAKE AND RESERVOIR MANAGEMENT vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 207-217, 1996.  Water quality impacts of shifting the shoreline discharge of a major (3.5 m super(3)/s) domestic wastewater treatment facility (METRO) on polluted, eutrophic Onondaga Lake, NY, to a deep-water location are evaluated with three mechanistic water quality models. Transport and mixing inputs for the simulations are specified from the output of a separate hydrothermal model (Owens and Effler 1996). Model simulations indicate, that by trapping enriched effluent in the lower layers, summertime concentrations of total phosphorus (TP) and total ammonia (T-NH sub(3)) would decrease in the upper mixed layer (0 to 4.5 m depth interval). Further reductions in the concentrations of those constituents would be realized by reducing sediment release, through maintenance of oxia in the hypolimnion. However, the decreases that could be achieved with the prevailing METRO effluent characteristics would not result in substantial reductions in phytoplankton growth nor prevent violation of the T-NH sub(3) standard. An extremely high degree of nitrification would be needed at METRO, particularly during the late fall to early spring interval (e.g., T-NH sub(3) concentrations < 3.6 mgN/L in effluent), to avoid violation of the T-NH sub(3) standard.  Oxygen concentrations in the existing METRO effluent would have to be maintained at approximately 70 mg/L to ensure the hypolimnion remains oxic. To provide oxygen concentrations greater than or equal to 5 mg/L in the hypolimnion, oxygen ncentrations of 130 mg/L would have to be maintained in METRO's effluent.
#|Dojlido, J. I., Raniszewski, J., & Woyciechowska, J.  1994.  Water Quality Index-Application for Rivers in Vistula River Basin.  Water Sci Technol v30, n10, p57(8).  The methodology used to calculate the water-quality index (WQI) in Poland is detailed, and its application to the Vistula River Basin is described. The summarized WQI is based on unit WQIs for individual parameters, including BOD, suspended solids, phosphate, ammonia, dissolved solids, COD-manganese, and DO, which were chosen after several years of analyses of the Vistula basin. The unit WQI is described, along with the algorithm used to calculate the summarized WQI. Examples are presented, and the advantages and limitations of the WQI methodology are elucidated.
#|Dojlido, J. I., Raniszewski, J., & Woyciechowska, J.  1995.  Water Quality Index Applied to Rivers in the Vistula River Basin in Poland.  Environ Monitor Assess v33, n1, p33(10). Water quality indices (WQIs) are calculated from unit WQIs for individual parameters. The higher the ultimate score, the better the water quality. The parameters used generally consist of BOD, suspended solids, phosphate, ammonia, dissolved solids, COD, and DO. Additional parameters can include pH, sulfates, chlorides, phenols, and heavy metals. The calculation of a summarized WQI is detailed, and the methodology is applied to the rivers in the Vistula River Basin in Poland. Of the 31 rivers evaluated, 9.6, 24, 21.5, and 44.6% were determined to be very clean, clean, polluted, and very polluted, respectively. The water-quality data for each river are tabulated.
#|DOLAN LS; DELUCA DK.  USE OF A HYDROLOGIC MODEL IN A BASIN-WIDE WATER ALLOCATION PROCEEDING.  WATER RESOURCES BULLETIN, 1993, V29, N1 (JAN-FEB), P107-117.  The Montana Department of Natural Resources and Conservation developed a hydrologic model to help analyze the effects of allocating water for consumptive and instream uses in the upper Missouri River basin of Montana. The model, a PC-based FORTRAN program, uses a mass-balance approach to compute monthly streamflows, reservoir operations, hydropower production, and irrigation and municipal water uses throughout the 54,000 square mile basin for a 59-year base period. Simulation results are presented as monthly mean and percentile-exceedence values. The model was run for baseline conditions and six hypothetical water-allocation alternatives. Results were used by staff resource area specialists to assess potential impacts to water quantity and distribution, water rights, water quality, stream channel form, fisheries, wildlife, recreation, hydropower production, and economics. These analyses were presented to the public and the decision-making board in an environmental impact statement (EIS). Though, in many instances, the model did not allow for detailed, site-specific analyses, the model was an important tool and its simulation results formed the hydrologic basis for the EIS.
#|Dosdall, L M ; Goodwin, L R ; Casey, R J ; Noton, L. The effect of ambient concentrations of chlorate on survival of freshwater aquatic invertebrates.  WATER QUALITY RESEARCH JOURNAL OF CANADA vol. 32, no. 4, pp. 839-854, 1997.  Chlorate (ClO sub(3) super(-)) is present in some pulp and paper mill wastewater as a byproduct of the use of chlorine dioxide in the bleaching processes. Chlorate is harmful to some species of algae and consequently research was undertaken to determine its impact on survival of freshwater aquatic invertebrates. Five species representing four orders of Insecta (Plecoptera: Isoperla transmarina (Newman) Ephemeroptera: Baetis tricaudatus Dodds and Tricorythodes minutus Traver Hemiptera: Dasycorixa hybrida (Hungerford) and Coleoptera: Haliplus sp.) were exposed to 5.0, 50.0 and 100.0 mg/L chlorate for 10 days. The plecopteran Isoperla longiseta Banks was exposed to 0.5, 5.0 and 50.0 mg/L chlorate for 10 days. Survival of specimens exposed to chlorate did not differ significantly from that of the controls. The LC sub(50) for Daphnia magna Straus, determined using the 48 h acute lethality test, was estimated at 3,162 mg/L. Chlorate levels from a bleached kraft pulp mill in northwestern Alberta that employs 100% chlorine dioxide substitution in its bleaching process ranged from nondetectable (<0.002 mg/L) to approximately 75 mg/L in effluent at the point of entry to the river system. At 25 and 127 km downstream from the mill, highest levels of chlorate in water samples were 3.25 and 1.00 mg/L, respectively. Comparisons of laboratory results with field measurements suggest that chlorate discharges from this pulp mill would have no adverse effect on the survival of the aquatic insect species evaluated here.
#|Doyotte, A ; Cossu, C ; Jacquin, M C ; Babut, M ; Vasseur, P.  Antioxidant enzymes, glutathione and lipid peroxidation as relevant biomarkers of experimental or field exposure in the gills and the digestive gland of the freshwater bivalve Unio tumidus.  AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY vol. 39, no. 2, pp. 93-110, 1997.  The aim of this work was to evaluate the potential utility of antioxidant parameters as indicators of exposure to toxicants and of toxic effects in the freshwater mussel Unio tumidus. Antioxidant enzymes (glutathione peroxidase (EC 1.11.1.9), glutathione reductase (EC 1.6.4.2), superoxide dismutase (EC 1.15.1.1), catalase (EC 1.11.1.6)), redox status of glutathione and lipid peroxidation were measured at first in the gills and the digestive glands of mussels after exposure to copper (30 mu g l-1) or/and thiram (100 mu g l-1) for 3 days. The effects of a complex industrial effluent on the antioxidant system were investigated afterwards in a field study: encaged mussels were placed in a river upstream and downstream from a pollution source consisting of the effluent of a cokery for 1 week. These studies demonstrated that in both experimental exposures, the most sensitive parameters were selenium-dependent glutathione peroxidase activity (SeGPx), reduced glutathione levels (GSH) and especially glutathione reductase activity (GRd) which significantly decreased. Decreases in SeGPX and GRd activities were more pronounced in the gills under coexposure to copper and thiram, with 74% and 78% of reduced activity, respectively (P<0.01) reduction of GSH levels was 50% in this case. In the field study, the activities could be reduced by 35% and 72% in the gills for SeGPx and Grd, respectively reduction of GSH levels could reach 45%. In contrast, superoxide dismutase and catalase activities remained generally constant in all the treatment groups compared with controls. Lipid peroxidation, as expressed by malonaldehyde content measured by HPLC, was slightly enhanced in experiment with copper+thiram and this increase (from 1.8 to 2.8 fold) was concomitant with a depletion of antioxidant defences. The responses of antioxidant parameters were overall greater in the gills than in the digestive glands of exposed mussels. These results suggest that among antioxidant defence systems, SeGPx, GSH levels and particularly Grd, could represent biomarkers of interest for the estimation of the effects of environmental contamination on freshwater invertebrates.
#|Duckett, H.  Organic nitrogen, nitrate and ammonia in a pasture irrigated by overland flow with wastewater effluent.  1994. Thesis (B.S.)--California Polytechnic State University, 1994.
#|Dudgeon, D.  River regulation in southern China: ecological implications, conservation and environmental management.  Regulated Rivers, 1996, v. 11(1) p. 35-54
#|Dufficy, T J ; Cappel, R ; Summers, S M. Silver discharge regulations questioned.  WATER ENVIRONMENT AND TECHNOLOGY vol. 5, no. 4, pp. 52-56, 1993.  Silver-based photographic materials are used widely in hospitals, dental offices, photographic laboratories, government agencies, portrait studios, and graphic arts and printing shops. The regulation of silver and silver-bearing waste is a pressing environmental issue facing these businesses. Most state and municipal agencies are regulating silver based on EPA guidance. These silver regulations are not based solely on the free ionic form of silver (for example, monovalent silver ion [Ag super(+)]), which can be acutely toxic to aquatic life. Instead, regulations are based on all silver compounds, including silver metal, precipitate forms, and strong complexes, which exhibit greatly reduced toxicity in aquatic systems and do not pose a human health threat. The risks from toxic forms of silver are being applied to all silver compounds, resulting in inappropriately low effluent standards.
#|Durhan, E J ; Norberg, King T J ; Burkhard, L P.  Methods for aquatic toxicity identification evaluations: Phase 2 toxicity identification procedures for samples exhibiting acute and chronic toxicity. Final rept.  REPORT NUMBER:  EPA600R92080, 74 pp., 1993.  This manual and its companion documents describe a three phase approach to provide guidance to dischargers in identifying toxicity in municipal and industrial effluents (Phase I, EPA, 1991A  EPA, 1992 and Phase III, EPA, 1993A). In 1989, the document titled 'Methods for Aquatic Toxicity Identification Evaluations: Phase II Toxicity Identification Procedures' was published as a guidance document for identifying the cause of toxicity in acutely toxic effluents (EPA, 1989A). This new Phase II document provides details for more types of samples, tests and test procedures that can be used to identify the specific chemical(s) responsible for acute or chronic effluent toxicity when the cause of toxicity is related to non-polar organic compounds, ammonia, surfactants, chlorine, or metals. Phase I characterization and Phase III confirmation, the other manuals in the three phase toxicity identification evaluations (TIE) approach, have also been produced or updated to include chronic toxicity information, and new developments made since the first set of documents were printed. The TIE-approach is applicable to effluents, ambient waters, sediment pore waters or elutriates, and hazardous waste leachates.
#|Dushenko, W T ; Bright, D A ; Reimer, K J.  Arsenic bioaccumulation and toxicity in aquatic macrophytes exposed to gold-mine effluent: Relationships with environmental partitioning, metal uptake and nutrients.  AQUATIC BOTANY vol. 50, no. 2, pp. 141-158, 1995.  Arsenic concentrations in freshwater macrophytes were examined in relation to arsenic loadings in sediments (solid phase and pore water) and surface waters for a group of lakes contaminated by the discharge of mine tailings near Yellowknife, N.W.T. Lakes closest to the current discharge were highly contaminated with arsenic (up to 18 650 mu g/g in sediments) compared with other areas. Macrophytes tended to bioconcentrate arsenic relative to sediment concentrations (up to a factor of ten), with submerged species containing much higher levels of arsenic than emergents. Differences in levels between the most common submerged (Potamogeton pectinatus L.) and emergent species (Typha latifolia L.) were attributed to differences in growth form and possible differences in the ability to exclude arsenic with increasing sediment concentrations. High environmental arsenic concentrations appeared to have negative effects on Typha latifolia, as suggested by decreased stand height, necrosis of leaf tips and reduced micro-nutrient concentrations in root tissues of copper, manganese, and zinc. Phytotoxic symptoms in Typha were generally observed at sediment and water concentrations exceeding 300 mu g/g and 400 mu g/l, respectively. The lack of relationships between tissue concentrations of arsenic and environmental concentrations of phosphorus (as pore water PO sub(4) super(-3), particulate total extractable P, or As:P ratios) did not support the hypothesis that arsenic bioavailability (as arsenate) and toxicity is related to its competition for uptake with phosphate.
#|Dutta S P S; Kaul V; Sharma J; Kour H.  An incidence of fish kill in Behlol Nullah, a tributary of River Tawi, Jammu. Journal of Environmental Biology 18 (3):p263-266 1997.  This communication records an incidence of a large scale fish kill observed on 29th October, 1993, in Behlol Nullah, a tributary of river Tawi Jammu. The study of water quality during the time of episode indicated that the fish mortality occurred due to sudden discharge of deoxygenated industrial effluents showing hydrogen sulphide and very high free CO-2 and BOD.
#|Dzurik, A. ; Soileau, B. B. ; Campbell, C. Assessing the Environmental Effects of Urban Transit Systems:  The Analysis and Evaluation of Stormwater Runoff Quality for Florida Transit Maintenance Facilities.  (Rept. for Oct 94-Sep 95).  FAMU/FSU  Coll. of Engineering, Tallahassee, FL. Dept. of Civil Engineering.; Department of Transportation, Washington, DC. University Research Inst. Program. Oct 95  56p.  Order this product from NTIS by: phone at 1-800-553-NTIS (U.S. customers); (703)605-6000 (other countries); fax at (703)321-8547; and email at orders@ntis.fedworld.gov. Contract No.: DTRS-93-G-0019.  An evaluation of public transit maintenance and storage facilities in Florida was performed to determine the stormwater quality of runoff from these facilities and to evaluate the validity of the EPA's assumption of stormwater runoff pollution problems.The characteristics of the facilities were investigated to evaluate the potential pollutants. These characteristics included maintenance performed at the facilities, materials used, and materials stored on-site at the facilities. It was determined that these characteristics, specifically activities such as vehicle repair, vehicle painting, vehicle washing, vehicle fueling, and storage of materials such as fuel, oils, lubricants, grease, and solvents, do provide a large potential for stormwater runoff pollution. Finally, the stormwater runoff quality data was used to determine which Best Management Practices (BMPs) would potentially increase the quality of stormwater runoff at these facilities. Eighteen applicable BMPs were identified for transit maintenance and storage facilities to improve stormwater runoff quality by preventing and treating stormwater runoff pollution.
#|Easterly, Clay E., ORNL; Jones, Troyce D.; Glass, Larry R.; Owen, Bruce A.; Walsh, Philip J.  Biotesting Wastewater for Hazard Evaluation.  Water Res  v27, n7, p1145(8) 1993.  A framework is developed to assess the public-health hazard of wastewater samples, based on a relative potency approach. Relative potency is defined as the situation where, in a given biological system, responses to different test and reference dosages are equal. Reference materials are those that have been well characterized by biological test data. Biological results for test materials are indirectly related to health risk-based guidelines of the reference materials. A battery of short-term bioassays would be used to rank the relative hazard represented by chemicals that are carcinogenic to animals. Short-term test system results would be incorporated into a data base that would include results for an inventory of chemicals and mixtures. As data were collected, chemical classes would emerge for low, medium, high, and dangerous categories of hazard.  Environmental samples could then be assessed by a position on the relative toxicity scale. Examples of the evaluation procedure are presented and described.
#|Easton, M D L ; Kruzysnki, G M ; Solar, I I ; Dye, H M. Genetic toxicity of pulp mill effluent on juvenile chinook salmon (Onchorhynchus tshawytscha) using flow cytometry.  FOREST INDUSTRY WASTEWATER V. SELECTED PROCEEDINGS OF THE 5TH IAWQ INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON FOREST INDUSTRY WASTEWATERS, VANCOUVER, BC, CANADA, 10-13 JUNE 1996. Hall, E R ; Colodey, A G  (eds ).  WATER SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY vol. 35, no. 2-3 pp. 347-355, 1997.  On-site bioassays were conducted at the furthest upstream pulp mill on the Fraser River in British Columbia.  Uncontaminated river water was used to dilute treated effluent as discharged from the final diffuser pond. A single cohort of juvenile (8-10gm) chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) was divided into an hypoxic group receiving 65% oxygen saturated water and a normoxic group receiving ambient 88% oxygen saturated water. Both groups were exposed over a period of 30 days to effluent concentrations of 2%, 4%, 8%, and 16%, while the controls received uncontaminated river water. This range of concentrations spanned those encountered by wild juvenile salmon overwintering in the upper Fraser River mainstem. The blood when analyzed by flow cytometry showed significant concentration-dependent clastogenic damage in both the normoxic and hypoxic groups starting at the 4% concentration. A concentration-response curve was determined from the hypoxic data set. Genetic implications of mutagenic damage to natural populations of chinook salmon are discussed along with the utility of the flow cytometer in detecting genotoxic damage.
#|Ebert, Ellen S; Harrington, Natalie W; Boyle, Kevin J; Knigh,t James W; Keenan, Russell E. Estimating consumption of freshwater fish among Maine anglers. North American Journal of Fisheries Management  13 (4):p737-745, 1993.  In deriving water quality standards and appropriate restoration levels for contaminated surface waters, the potential for human exposure is often the most important factor to be considered. For certain persistent compounds, like 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) or mixtures of polychlorinated biphenyls, a primary pathway of human exposure is through ingestion of fishobtained from affected waters. Pending water quality regulation for TCDD in Maine required that estimates be made of the rate of consumption of freshwater fish obtained from rivers that receive TCDD discharges. Because commercial freshwater fishers do not exist on Maine rivers, any freshwater fish that are eaten have been caught by anglers. A statewide mail survey of Maine's licensed anglers was undertaken to characterize rates of fish consumption from rivers and streams in Maine. The survey was mailed to 2,500 licensed resident anglers who were randomly selected from state license files. The response rate of 70% (based on deliverable surveys) resulted in a usable sample of 1,612 anglers. Results of this study indicated that, if fish are shared with other fish eaters in the household, the annual average consumption of freshwater river fish per consuming angler in Maine is 3.7 g/d. Comparisons of findings of this study and of studies in other regions of the United States show considerable variations in fish consumption rates, supporting the use of state- or region-specific estimates of fish consumption in establishing water quality regulations for persistent, biologically accumulative compounds.
#|Ecotoxicity in the Reconquista River, Providence of Buenos Aires, Argentina: A preliminary study.  ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES; 104 (2). 1996. 186-189.  The Reconquista River in Argentina is considered a "supercritical" river basin due to environmental degradation. Within its valley of 1.547 km2, there are more than 3 million inhabitants and 12,000 industries.  Using early-life-stage toxicity tests with Bufo arenarum embryos (the most sensitive of three native species) we determined the water quality at six sampling stations of the river valley and expressed the results as acute and chronic toxicity units. Along most of the river, the toxicity was higher than the allowable level of whole industrial effluent toxicity recommended by U.S. EPA.  In a tributary stream, Arroyo Moron, the water was about 10 times more toxic than the criteria maximum concentration (CMC) recommended by U.S. EPA for industrial effluents.  Similar degradation of the water quality was found taking as a reference value an upstream sampling station. In all places where the water quality was worse than the CMC, no macroorganisms were found, and in one of these places, a large number of dead fishes was observed. Our study points out that amphibian early-life-stage toxicity tests could be appropriate for assessing water contamination and water quality, which is essential for diagnosis, protection of environmental services, monitoring, and restoration purposes.
#|Edwards, C. ; Arand, M.  Plant removes phosphorus to protect scenic river.  WATER ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT vol. 141, no. 10, pp. 22-23.  1994.  Engineers from as far away as Canada and Mexico have been visiting Tahlequah, Oklahoma, to see is the town's new $9 million wastewater treatment plant which has become a kind of engineering tourist attraction. Designed to meet a set of very restrictive state effluent standards, the new facility operates under a discharge permit with limits of 7.6 mg/l for biological oxygen demand (BOD), 11.0 mg/l for total suspended solids (TSS), 1.5 mg/l for ammonia-nitrogen (NH sub(3)-N), and 1.0 mg/l for phosphorus. The reason for these stringent effluent limitations is the presence of the Illinois River, into which the treatment plant discharges.
#|Edwards, D. R., Daniel, T. C., Scott, H. D., Moore, P. A. Jr., Murdoch, J. F., & Vendrell, P. F.  1998.  Effect of BMP Implementation on Storm Flow Quality of Two Northwestern Arkansas Streams.  Trans Am Soc Agric Eng v40, n5, p1311(9). Best management practices (BMPs-those designated by government agencies as options that meet certain criteria) for improving agricultural runoff quality have been designated on the basis of plot- and field-scale studies. Only limited information is available on the watershed scale, especially for pasture lands. Implementation of a BMP program in the Lincoln Lake watershed, northwestern Arkansas, was effective for reducing storm stream flow concentrations and mass transport of nitrate nitrogen, ammonia nitrogen, total Kjeldahl nitrogen, ortho-phosphorus, total phosphorus, COD, and total suspended solids. Monitoring of storm flow quality into two major tributaries in the watershed showed significant decreases in most of these parameters, occurring concurrently with BMP implementation. The nutrient management BMP probably is most responsible for the improvements.
#|EDWARDS, LAURA CLEVELAND. THE AQUATIC TOXICITY AND MUTAGENICITY OF AZO AND FORMAZAN DYES (LEMNA MINOR, SALMONELLA, CHROMIUM, COBALT, IRON DYES). PH.D., 1996. NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSITY. The health of the environment is of paramount importance in today's textile and chemical industries. Growing regulations and public pressure have forced companies to be increasingly careful in every aspect of their production operations. For dyers and dye manufacturers, the disposal of dye effluent is of major concern. Colored wastewater is aesthetically unpleasing to the public and poses a potential health hazard to humans who consume it and to plants and animals that live in it. Though all dye classes present some concern, environmentally, dyes complexed with toxic metals are of special concern. This dissertation is concerned with the mutagenicity and aquatic toxicity of metallized and unmetallized azo and formazan dyes. The Salmonella/Mammalian Microsome Assay and the Lemna Aquatic Toxicity Assay were used to assess the properties of 27 dyes. The goals of this project were: (1) to determine structure/activity relationships; (2) to determine whether replacing chromium and cobalt with iron in metal complexes would lower mutagenicity and aquatic toxicity; and (3) to determine the effect of ozonolysis on the aquatic toxicity of metal-complex dyes. The results of this study suggest that: (1) The bacterial mutagenicity of the dyes examined was primarily due to nitro groups in the molecule. The mutagenic compounds were primarily frameshift mutagens and were both direct-acting and indirect-acting. (2) The mutagenicity of metal-complexes was dependent on the mutagenicity of the precursor. (3) In aquatic toxicity studies, iron-complexed azo dyes were less toxic to Lemna Minor than the corresponding chromium or cobalt complexes. (4) Ozonolysis of aqueous solutions of metal-complex dyes led to an increase in pH and to an increase in toxicity to Lemna Minor for most dyes. It is apparent that iron-complex dyes have lower levels of aquatic toxicity than chromium or cobalt complexes, and that iron-complexation will generally decrease bacterial mutagenicity. The use of iron-complexes is therefore a viable alternative to complexes of chromium and cobalt and will reduce the genotoxicity of metallized dyes.
#|Edwards, T. K. (1993). Assessment of surface-water quality and water-quality control alternatives, Johnson Creek basin, Oregon. Water Resources Investigation Report: 93-4090.  46pp.  Johnson Creek flows through a basin of approximately 51 square miles with mixed land uses over a reach of approximately 24 river miles from southwest of Gresham, Oregon, to its confluence with the Willamette River in Milwaukie, Oregon. Land uses within the basin include forested and agricultural lands, suburban residential, urban, and light industrial. Surface runoff and ground-water flow from the basin's areas of various land use result in concentrations of some nutrients, trace elements, and organic compounds at levels exceeding U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) criteria. Concentrations of dissolved cadmium, copper, lead, mercury, and silver, total recoverable chlordane, dieldrin, and dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) plus metabolites indicate that sources of at least one or more of these constituents exist in virtually every reach of Johnson Creek. Crystal Springs Creek is a major source of nutrients in lower Johnson Creek. Concentrations of dissolved nitrate and orthophosphorus in Johnson Creek are elevated at low flow, and are reduced by dilution when urban runoff flows into the creek during storms. Total-phosphorus concentrations exceed USEPA criteria at several sites in Johnson Creek during low flow, and at all sites during periods of storm runoff. Three organochlorine pesticide compounds were found at elevated concentrations. Even though total-recoverable chlordane, dieldrin, and DDT plus its metabolites are elevated at some sites during low flow, increased concentrations and expanded areal distribution during storms, when heavy sediment loads are entrained, reflect their hydrophobic nature and long-term persistence in the environment. The low-flow concentration of dissolved silver exceeded hardness-dependent USEPA Fresh Water Chronic Toxicity (FWCT) criterion only in Crystal Springs Creek. Concentrations of dissolved cadmium, copper, lead, and mercury exceeded their respective FWCT criteria at selected sites in Johnson Creek Basin during storm runoff. Water quality in the basin could be improved by implementing one or a combination of management practices. These practices could include control of contaminants at their source and removal of contaminant-laden sediment by constructed settling basins and (or) natural or constructed wetland. Wetlands can act as biofilters to reduce contaminant concentrations carried by flows released downstream.
#|Effler, S W ; Doerr, S M.  Water quality model evaluations for scenarios of loading reductions and diversion of domestic waste effluent around Onondaga Lake.  LAKE AND RESERVOIR MANAGEMENT vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 181-198, 1996.  Management models for total phosphorus (TP), various nitrogen (N) species, and dissolved oxygen (DO), for polluted culturally eutrophic Onondaga Lake are developed from models presented and tested earlier in this issue (Doerr et al. 1996a, Canale et al. 1996, Gelda and Auer 1996). The management models are applied to test a wide range of remediation alternatives, corresponding to a wide range of reductions in pollutant loading. The analysis focuses primarily on the effluent (3.5 m super(3)/s(80 MGD)) received from an adjoining domestic wastewater plant (METRO), though a reasonable upper bound of reductions in tributary TP load also is considered. The decreases in lake TP and total ammonia (T-NH sub(3)) concentrations that could be achieved by partial diversion of METRO, increased treatment at METRO, and reductions in tributary loading, would not be adequate to meet the established in-lake TP goal of 20 mu g/L (as a summer average in the upper waters), the T-NH sub(3) standard for the lake (0.77 mgN/L for the upper waters in summer), nor the DO standard for the lake's upper waters (daily average greater than or equal to 5 mg/L). Diversion of the entire METRO discharge around the lake is found to be necessary to meet the T-NH sub(3) standard, to approach or meet the TP concentration goal, and to avoid violation of the DO standard in the upper waters during fall. Reductions in the prevailing tributary TP load, of as much as 30%, may be necessary to reach the TP goal.
#|Effler, S W ; Hennigan, R D.  Onondaga Lake, New York: Legacy of pollution.  LAKE AND RESERVOIR MANAGEMENT vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 1-13, 1996.  Onondaga Lake, NY, has been described as the most polluted lake in the United States. This medium size (surface area of 12 km super(2) and mean depth of 10.9 m), rapidly flushed (average of 3.9 flushes/y), urban lake has received large quantities of domestic and industrial waste associated with development of the Syracuse area. Selected features of the history of development of the area, including municipal and industrial inputs to the lake, are reviewed. Presently about 20% of the inflow to the lake is municipal wastewater effluent. Standards for dissolved oxygen, fecal coliform, free ammonia, nitrite, clarity, and mercury concentration in fish flesh are violated routinely in the lake, a state guidance value for total phosphorus concentration is exceeded annually, and the lake's stratification/mixing regime and littoral zone have been impacted. Enforcement actions, now underway against the primary sources of municipal and industrial waste, are described. The design of the research program for the lake is reviewed, and the role subsequent articles in this issue play in developing a management strategy for remediation is described.
#|Egan, J T ; Michael, G Y ; Grimes, M M ; Moore, T F ; Canton, S P ; Rochette, A P. Tailoring requirements to reality: The Santa Ana River use attainability analysis.  SEEKING AN INTEGRATED APPROACH TO WATERSHED MANAGEMENT IN THE SOUTH PLATTE BASIN.  Klein, K C ; Williams, D J  (eds ).  INF. SER. COLO. WATER RESOUR. RES. INST. vol. 76 p. 61, 1993. 1993 South Platte Forum: COLORADO WATER RESOURCES RESEARCH INSTITUTE.  COLORADO STATE UNIVERSITY, FORT COLLINS, CO. This paper presents a summary of a comprehensive use attainability analysis (UAA) on the Santa Ana River in Southern California. The river is an urbanized effluent-dominated watercourse that has its origin in the foothills of the San Bernadino Mountains.  The Santa Ana River has multiple beneficial uses including warm water aquatic life. As a result of the river being placed on the EPA's 304(1) "short" list for presumed impairment of the aquatic life use because of heavy metals contamination, a year long UAA was conducted along its entire length. The UAA included integrated water chemistry, fish surveys, invertebrate enumeration, biomonitoring, habitat assessment, fish flesh analysis, pathogen screening, and socio-economic impact analysis. The UAA found no impairment due to metals, but found physical habitat limitations and some impairment from chlorine, ammonia, and nitrate. Beneficial use modifications, site specific water quality objectives, and reach boundary changes were recommended. Two billion dollars in unnecessary capitol improvements were avoided. The project also provided a holistic picture of the Santa Ana River that is being used by policy-makers and utilities for future planning and informed decision-making.
#|Eisler, R.  (1996).  Silver Hazards to Fish, Wildlife, and Invertebrates: A Synoptic Review.  Biol. Rep. Natl. Biol. Serv. #32.  Ecological and toxicological aspects of silver (Ag) and silver salts in the environment are briefly summarized with an emphasis on natural resources. Subtopics include sources and uses, chemistry and metabolism, concentrations in field collections, lethal and sublethal effects, and recommendations for the protection of natural resources. Elevated silver concentrations in biota occur in the vicinities of sewage outfalls, electroplating plants, mine waste sites, and silver-iodide seeded areas; in the United States, the photography industry is the major source of anthropogenic silver discharges into the biosphere. Silver and its compounds are not known to be mutagenic, teratogenic, or carcinogenic. Free silver ion, however, was lethal to representative species of sensitive aquatic plants, invertebrates, and teleosts at nominal water concentrations. Proposed criteria for the protection of living organisms from silver are listed and discussed.
#|Eisler, R. Copper hazards to fish, wildlife, and invertebrates: A synoptic review.  Biol. Sci. Rep. Natl. Biol. Serv. no. 1997-2, 98 pp, 1997.  This report is a selective review and synthesis of the technical literature on copper and copper salts in the environment and their effects primarily on fishes, birds, mammals, terrestrial and aquatic invertebrates, and other natural resources. The subtopics include copper sources and uses chemical and biochemical properties concentrations of copper in field collections of abiotic materials and living organisms effects of copper deficiency lethal and sublethal effects on terrestrial plants and invertebrates, aquatic organisms, birds, and mammals, including effects on survival, growth, reproduction, behavior, metabolism, carcinogenicity, mutagenicity, and teratogenicity proposed criteria for the protection of human health and sensitive natural resources and recommendations for additional research.
#|Eisler, R., Andren, A. W., & Bober, T. W. E. (1996).  A review of silver hazards to plants and animals.  International Conference Transport, Fate and Effects of Silver in the Environment.  Madison, WI, Aug 25-28, 1996.  pp. 143-144.  A review of available literature on ecological and toxicological data of silver (Ag) and silver salts in the environment are briefly summarized, with an emphasis on natural resources. Subtopics include sources and uses of silver, chemistry and metabolism, concentrations in field collections, lethal and sublethal effects, and recommendations for the protection of natural resources. Elevated silver concentrations in biota occur in the vicinities of sewage outfalls, electroplating plants, mine wastes, and silver-iodide seeded areas in the United States, the photography industry is the major source of anthropogenic silver discharges into the biosphere. Maximum silver concentrations found in field collections, in mg total Ag/kg dry weight (tissue), are 1.5 in mammals (liver), 6 in fish (bone), 14 in plants (whole), 30 in annelid worms (whole), 44 in birds (liver), 110 in mushrooms (whole), 185 in bivalve molluscs (soft parts), and 320 in gastropods (whole). Humans with silver poisoning (argyria) contain as much as 72 mg total Ag/kg dry weight skin and 1,300 mg total Ag /kg fresh weight whole body. Silver and its compounds are not known to be mutagenic, teratogenic, or carcinogenic. Under normal routes of exposure, silver does not pose serious environmental health problems to humans at less than 100 ug total Ag/L drinking water or less than 10 ug total Ag/m super(3) air. Free silver ion (Ag super(+)), however, is lethal to representative species of sensitive aquatic plants, invertebrates, and teleosts at nominal water concentrations of 1.2 to 4.9 ug/L at sublethal concentrations, significant adverse effects occur between 0.17 and 0.6 ug/L. No data are available on effects of silver on avian or mammalian wildlife all studied effects are on poultry, small laboratory animals, and livestock. Silver is harmful to poultry at concentrations as low as 1.8 mg total Ag/kg whole egg fresh weight by way of injection, 100 mg total Ag/L in drinking water, or 200 mg total Ag/kg in diets sensitive mammals are adversely affected at total silver concentrations as low as 250 ug/L in drinking water, 6 mg/kg in diets, or 13.9 mg/kg whole body. Proposed criteria for the protection of sensitive resources are discussed in terms of silver speciation in natural waters, the significance of silver residues in tissues, silver interactions with other metals, the environmental fate of silver, and silver absorption and retention by animals.
#|Ejaz, M. S.; Peralta, R. C.  Modeling for optimal management of agricultural and domestic wastewater loading to streams.  Water Resources Research  vol. 31 (4):  p.1087-1096.  1995.  A simulation/optimization model to aid managing multiobjective waste water loading to streams while maintaining adequate downstream water quality is presented. The conflicting objectives are to max. the human and dairy cattle populations from which treated waste water can be discharged to the river system. Municipal waste water undergoes primary and secondary treatment by a sewerage treatment plant (STP) before entering at a steady point source.  Dairy waste water is treated by overland flow (OLF) land treatment before entering the stream as a controlled steady diffuse source.  Max. dual-source loading strategies which do not degrade downstream water quality beyond specific limits were developed. For each computed loading strategy, an opt. OLF system design was also determined.  TheE constraint method is used to obtain sets on noninferior solutions.  Sets of noninferior solutions are represented graphically to show the trade-off between human and bovine populations that can be maintained. Each set is computed for a different upstream flow rate to illustrate sensitivity to nondeterministic upstream flow rates.  The nonlinear constraints utilized restrict downstream concn of 5-day biochemical oxygen demand, dissolvedoxygen, itrogen (organic, ammonia, nitrite and nitrate), organic and dissolved phosphorus, and chlorophyll a. Concnaredescribed via regression equations.  The new regression expressions, surrogates for the complex advective-dispersive equation, permit rapid and feasible solutions by this model.
#|Elder, G. R.; Simpson, K. A.  Critical Review of Selective Absorbers for Radioactive and Hazardous Species.  IAEA TECDOC-929: Treatment Technol for Low and Intermediate Level Waste from Nucl Applications  p153(9) Feb 97.  The efficacy of selective removal of radioactive and hazardous constituents from liquid and solid waste streams rests on the selectivity and distribution ratios of the absorber. Sorption reversibility, absorber stability and form, and absorber cost and supply considerations are also addressed. The importance of these factors in treatment effectiveness is illustrated in case studies of cesium removal from Magnox fuel storage ponds and selenium removal for water purification.
#|Ellis, G. W.; Grasso, D.; Ge, X.  ARMA processes and reliability-based design of wastewater-treatment facilities.  Journal of Environmental Engineering  (New York)  vol.  119 (3): p.463-477.  1993. The applicability of univariate uncorrelated, univariate ARMA and diagonalized vector autoregressive moving average (ARMA) processes was studied and compared with published procedures for reliability-based design of waste water treatment plants. Three applications are presented.  In the first application, influent biological oxygen demand (BOD) mass loading was simulated using a univariate, weekly periodic autoregressive process to calculate sustained peak loading. In the second application, 3 water-quality variables were simulated jointly using a diagonalized vector autoregressive process to calculate potential nutrient deficiencies in activated sludge processes. In the third application, effluent BOD concn were simulated using a univariate autoregressive process to calculate the reliability of meeting permit limits of various durations. It was found that by more completely modelling the statistical structure of available historical data, the ARMA modelling techniques were effective for reliability-based design applications for which duration is important, as distinct from instantaneous peak loading.
#|Ellis, J B ; Hvitved Jacobsen, T. Urban drainage impacts on receiving waters.  JOURNAL OF HYDRAULIC RESEARCH/JOURNAL DE RECHERCHES HYDRAULIQUES vol. 34, no. 6, pp. 771-784, 1996.  The paper deals with the causes and consequences of urban storm drainage impacts on receiving waters and discusses available methods and tools for implementation of structural as well as non-structural measures to improve surface water quality from the deleterious effects of such intermittent urban discharges. Pollution of receiving waters must be understood on the basis of the characteristics and processes of controlling interactions within the urban water and wastewater system in order that an operational procedure for improved quality of the surface waters and adjacent corridor can be achieved. The main aspects of such a procedure involve water quality and biotic criteria as well as modelling systems which enable the user to link together the effect of changes within the catchment or surface water system with a specific quality and ecological improvement of the receiving waters.
#|Emmerth,-P.; Webber,-E.C. Comparison of reference streams between ecoregions using rapid bioassessment protocols. Annu. Meeting of the Alabama Academy of Science, Huntsville, AL 24-27 Mar 1993.  J.-ALABAMA-ACAD.-SCI. 1993  vol. 64, no. 2, p. 99.  Reference streams were sampled in Spring 1992 from two subregions: the Piedmont subregion of the Southeastern Plains ecoregion located in east-central Alabama and the eastern subregion of the southwestern Appalachian ecoregion located in central Alabama. U.S. EPA Rapid Bioassessment Protocols (RBP) were used to assess stream quality. RBP is an integrated assessment comparing habitat (eg. physical structure and flow regimen) and biological measures with empirically defined reference conditions within an ecoregion. Reference streams are defined as the "best attainable conditions" against which other streams are compared when assessing impacts. EPA and The Alabama Department of Environmental Management (ADEM) have now suggested using reference streams within subregions of the ecoregion. We compared the inter and intra-variability of two reference streams within each of two subregions defined by EPA. No distinct differences were evident between subregions. The two streams in the eastern subregion of the Southwestern Appalachian ecoregion exhibited distinct differences. Observations revealed heavily forested watersheds but some clear cutting was evident on one of the streams. The two streams in the Piedmont subregion had similar stream quality. Land use within the watersheds of the Piedmont streams was comprised of more pasture and less forested land than the Southwestern Appalachian watersheds. Therefore, land-use patterns appeared to be a major factor influencing variability among reference streams.
#|ENRIGHT NJ, MILLER BP, CRAWFORD A.  ENVIRONMENTAL CORRELATES OF VEGETATION PATTERNS AND SPECIES RICHNESS IN THE NORTHERN GRAMPIANS, VICTORIA.  AUSTRALIAN JOURNAL OF ECOLOGY 19: (2) 159-168 JUN 1994.  Plant species cover-abundance and density data were collected for 94 sample plots across a gradient from rocky uplands to sandy outwash plains in the northern part of Grampians (Gariwerd) National Park in western Victoria. Detrended correspondence analysis (DCA) was used to identify dominant gradients in species composition. A range of static (e.g. substrate type, soil depth, microclimate indicators) and dynamic (e.g. elapsed time since last fire) environmental variables were measured. Correlations were sought between these variables and vegetation patterns including those for richness (R) and Shannon-Weiner diversity (H') The dominant gradient of vegetation change identified by DCA separated rocky sites and sites near ephemeral streams, from well-drained, sandy sites. Secondary gradients identified time since last fire as important for sandy sites, and altitude and aspect-related microclimate for rocky sites.  Diversity was highest in the first 2 years after fire but showed no further decline in older sites. Overall, R and H' were negatively correlated with soil nutrient concentrations. On sandy sites R was high, but was low on rocky sites and near streams. Within the rocky sites, R was highest on cool, moist south and east slopes, and lowest on hot, dry north and west slopes. Explanations of diversity patterns based on inhibition of competitive exclusion due to stress and recurrent disturbance best fit the results presented here.
#|Environmental Management Associates, North Vancouver.  Chemistry and toxicity of three wastewaters. Environmental Management Associates, North Vancouver, (British Columbia).  Hydroqual Laboratories Ltd.  Canada. Conservation & Protection. Fraser Pollution Abatement Office. 1993. 59p. As a first step toward developing a toxicity testing program tailored to the Fraser River Basin, the Fraser Pollution Abatement Office initiated a pilot wastewater characterization study in April and May 1992. The study sampled effluent from Annacis Island Wastewater Treatment Plant, final effluent from Northwood Pulp and Timber Ltd. kraft pulp mill, and urban runoff from a Vancouver storm sewer. A flow-weighted composite from each site was subjected to duplicate chemical analysis to identify the main components and toxicological testing with an array of acute and chronic bioassays. This report provides analysis and interpretation of the data. Toxicity data were evaluated to identify dose-response relationships between constituents of the effluent and toxicity test results, and the toxicity and chemistry data were interpreted in the larger context of the potential effects of each effluent on the Fraser River ecosystem.
#|Environmental Management Associates, North Vancouver.  Evaluation of the PEEP index and recommended toxicity tests for the Fraser River Basin. Environmental Management Associates, North Vancouver, (British Columbia).  Hydroqual Laboratories Ltd.  Canada. Conservation & Protection. Fraser Pollution Abatement Office. 1993. 59p. The Fraser Pollution Abatement Office has a mandate to significantly reduce discharges of environmentally disruptive effluents to the Fraser River Basin. One approach being considered is the Potential Effects Probe (PEEP), developed for testing and ranking effluents in the St. Lawrence River Basin. PEEP uses results from four small-volume bioassays, selected to incorporate a range of trophic levels and a variety of acute and chronic endpoints. This study evaluated the applicability of the PEEP index approach to the Fraser River basin using results of a pilot wastewater characterization study undertaken in April and May 1992. Effluent samples included primary treated domestic sewage from greater Vancouver, final effluent from a bleached kraft pulp mill, and urban runoff from a Vancouver storm sewer. A flow-weighted, composite sample from each site was tested for acute toxicity with rainbow trout, Daphnia, and the bacterial luminescence (Microtox) test. A private company also tested the effluents and computed the PEEP index for each.
#|EPA releases "flexible" Great Lakes guidelines.  WATER ENVIRONMENT AND TECHNOLOGY vol. 7, no. 5, p. 23, 1995.  After nearly 6 years of development, EPA released a water quality guidance document for the Great Lakes that is "more flexible" than the proposed guidelines issued in 1993. The final guidance establishes minimum water quality criteria for 29 pollutants, outlines implementation procedures, and sets antidegradation policies. The five goals of the guidance are to protect human health, protect wildlife, protect aquatic life, ensure that current water quality will not be diminished, and ensure consistent implementation with appropriate flexibility.
#|EPA to Add 'Safety Valves' to Stormwater Program.  Waterworld vol. 14, no. 6, pp. 1-2, 1998.  The Environmental Protection Agency is working to revise the Phase II stormwater control program to install "safety valves" that would allow certain sources to be excluded from the national program if they can demonstrate they have no impact on water quality. Some sources not regulated on a national basis could be pulled into the program, however, to help combat localized problems with water quality. The existing National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) stormwater program (Phase I) has been in place for a number of years, helping improve surface water quality in the United States by reducing polluted runoff from a large number of priority sources, including major industrial facilities, large and medium city storm sewers ("municipal separate storm sewer system" or "MS4s"), as well as construction sites that disturb five or more acres. The Phase II stormwater regulations, which must be finalized by March 1, 1999, would expand the existing national program to smaller municipalities and construction sites that disturb one to five acres.
#|Epidemiological studies related to the environmental quality criteria for bathing waters, shellfish-growing waters and edible marine organisms.  1995.  MAP Technical Reports Series no. 93.  UNEP, Athens (Greece). Mediterranean Action Plan; WHO, Geneva (Switzerland).
#|ERICKSON RJ, BENOIT DA, MATTSON VR, NELSON HP, & LEONARD EN. (1996). THE EFFECTS OF WATER CHEMISTRY ON THE TOXICITY OF COPPER TO FATHEAD MINNOWS.  ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY, V15, N2, P181-193. The effects of various water chemistry parameters on the toxicity of copper to larval fathead minnows were investigated. Increased pH, hardness, sodium, dissolved organic matter, and suspended solids each caused toxicity to decrease on the basis of total copper concentrations. In contrast, added potassium resulted in increased toxicity. Alkalinity had no observed effect on total copper LC50s, but its effects might have been masked by those of the cations added with it. In most cases, the effects of water chemistry were found to be similar for different endpoints (growth, survival at different durations), but there were differences in the relative magnitude of some effects across these endpoints. Over all experimental treatments, 96-h total copper LC50s varied 60-fold. Every water chemistry parameter also caused toxicity to vary significantly when expressed on the basis of cupric ion selective electrode measurements, sometimes more so than on the basis of total copper. Therefore, this study does not support attributing to cupric ion a singular importance in regulating toxicity to this test organism. A variety of copper species might be contributing to toxicity and it is evident that toxicity is also affected by water chemistry in ways not related to copper speciation.
#|Erickson, R J ; Brooke, L T ; Kahl, M D ; Venter, F V ; Harting, S L ; Markee, T P ; Spehar, R L.  Effects of laboratory test conditions on the toxicity of silver to aquatic organisms.  ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY vol. 17, no. 4, pp. 572-578, 1998.  The effects of various chemical manipulations of test water on acute toxicity of silver to fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas) were investigated. Increases in hardness and organic carbon substantially reduced toxicity. Toxicity was also inversely related to pH and alkalinity when these parameters were jointly changed by addition of strong acid or base. The addition of 2 meq/L sodium sulfate had no significant effects, but the addition of 0.2 meq/L sodium chloride increased toxicity, perhaps related to the formation of the dissolved AgCl super(0) complex. We also evaluated the effects of static versus flow-through test conditions, feeding during exposure, and aging of test solutions before exposure on the acute toxicity of silver to fathead minnows and Daphnia magna. Static conditions and feeding reduced toxicity, likely as a result of accretion of organic carbon.  Aging of test solutions had little effect. For both juvenile fathead minnows and D. magna, silver was much less toxic in water from the St. Louis River than in our normal laboratory water, presumably because of the much higher organic carbon content of the river water. This study identified some aspects of test conditions that are important in assessing the risk of silver to aquatic biota, but improved assessments will require information for more conditions, species, and endpoints.  More importantly, if toxicity test results are to be extrapolated among waters with different chemistries, adequate characterization of the chemical speciation of silver and a better understanding of the mechanisms of silver toxicity and its relationship to silver speciation and other chemical factors are needed.
#|Ernst, W R ; Hennigar, P ; Doe, K ; Wade, S ; Julien, G.  Characterization of the chemical constituents and toxicity to aquatic organisms of a municipal landfill leachate. WATER QUALITY RESEARCH JOURNAL OF CANADA vol. 29, no. 1, pp. 89-101 , 1994.  Samples of leachate were obtained at four locations in effluent streams from a municipal waste landfill near Halifax, Nova Scotia.  Samples were analyzed for a number of physical and chemical parameters using standard laboratory procedures. Samples were also screened to identify organic chemicals by matching mass spectrometer output against a reference spectrum library. Static acute toxicity tests (48 h to 96 h) were also conducted on samples using rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) and water fleas (Daphnia magna) as test organisms. The acute toxicity of leachate was primarily due to its ammonia content however, the chronic effects on aquatic organisms of the range of organic chemicals identified in these samples remains undetermined. Paradoxically, the leachate discharge to the receiving water body reduced the toxic potential of that water to the organism tested.
#|Erten-Unal-M.; Paranjape-S.; Schafran-G.C.  Evaluation of the Effects of AFFF Inputs to the VIP Biological Nutrient Removal Process and Pass - through Toxicity-Phase IA. Phase IA Study, Sep 96-Sep 97. Old Dominion Univ., Norfolk, VA. Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering.  27 Feb 98. 53p. This report discusses the results of a bench scale study conducted to evaluate the potential inhibitory effects of untreated AFFF wastewater to the Virginia Initiative Plant (VIP) biological nutrient removal process. A bench-scale study was conducted to evaluate the potential inhibitory effects of untreated AFFF wastewater to the nitrification process of the Virginia Initiative Plant biological nutrient removal system. Under this testing, bench-safe reactors simulating the nitrification process were loaded at various AFFF concentrations and the influence on the process performance was evaluated. The purpose of this effort was to determine the level of AFFF that could be incorporated into the influent of a biological nutrient removal process without causing inhibitory effects. The results of the nitrification inhibition study showed that the AFFF concentrations tested in the range between 10 ppm to 60 ppm did not show any significant inhibition to biological nitrification. The effluent from each reactor did not exhibit any pass-through toxicity as well.
#|Esposito, David M.  Significance of Denitrification During Stream Channel Recharge of Sewage Effluent.  American Water Resources Association:  Proceedings of the Symposium on Effluent Use Management  Tucson, AZ.  August 29-September 2, 1993.  p 123-130.  American Water Resources Association.  In the arid West, discharge of treated municipal wastewater to normally dry streams generally results in significant recharge to groundwater.  Because of the high total nitrogen levels in effluent (in Tucson, Arizona, levels are greater than 20 mg/L), nitrate contamination of groundwater is a potential concern. Sewage effluent has been disposed of northwest of Tucson since the early 1900s. Continuous discharge of treated sewage effluent to the Santa Cruz River began in 1969 and continues to this day. Groundwater monitoring downstream of Tucson's wastewater treatment plants has shown nitrate-nitrogen concentrations in the range of 5 mg/L. Investigations have also shown almost complete removal of nitrate in less than two feet of percolation beneath the bed of the Santa Cruz River. This paper discusses the results of a study undertaken to evaluate the potential nitrogen removal mechanisms at work during the recharge of treated sewage effluent in the Santa Cruz River.
#|Etnier, E. L., Opresko, D. M., & Talmage, S. S.  (1994).  Second report on the Oak Ridge Y-12 Plant fish kill for Upper East Fork Poplar Creek.  Oak Ridge National Lab., TN.  August 1994.  221p.  Environmental Sciences Division Publication Number 4274. Sponsored by Department of Energy, Washington, DC. This report summarizes the monitoring of fish kills in upper East Fork Poplar Creek (EFPC) from July 1990 to June 1993. Since the opening of Lake Reality (LR) in 1988, total numbers of fish inhabiting upper EFPC have increased. However, species diversity has remained poor. Water quality data have been collected in upper EFPC during the time period covered in this report. Total residual chlorine (TRC) levels have exceeded federal and state water quality criteria over the years. However, with the installation of two dechlorination systems in late 1992, TRC levels have been substantially lowered in most portions of upper EFPC. By June 1993, concentrations of TRC were 0.04 to 0.06 mg/L at the north-south pipes (NSP) and below detection limits at sampling station AS-8 and were 0 to 0.01 mg/L at the inlet and outlet of LR. The daily chronic fish mortality in upper EFPC has been attributed to background stress resulting from the continuous discharge of chlorine into upper EFPC. Mean daily mortality rates for 22 acute fish kills were three fold or more above background and usually exceeded ten fish per day. Total number of dead fish collected per acute kill event ranged from 30 to over 1,000 fish; predominant species killed were central stonerollers (Campostoma anomalum) and striped shiners (Luxilus chrysocephalus). Spills or elevated releases of toxic chemicals, such as acids, organophosphates, aluminum nitrate, ammonia, or chlorine, were identified as possible causative agents; however, a definitive cause-effect relationship was rarely established for any acute kills. Ambient toxicity testing, in situ chemical monitoring, and streamside experiments were used to examine TRC dynamics and ambient toxicity in EFPC.
#|Evans, Shane Kent. Studies of benthic macroinvertebrates in western Virginia streams as related to the implementation of rapid bioassessment techniques.  Blacksburg, Va. : University Libraries, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 1997.  Machine-readable data. Title from electronic submission form. Vita. Abstract. Thesis (Ph. D.)--Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 1997. This study tested two key assumptions in developing regional biocriteria: (1) the accuracy of the ecoregion classification framework and (2) the accuracy of standardized qualitative sampling. System requirements: PC, World Wide Web browser and PDF reader. Available electronically via Internet.
#|Everts, J. W.  Ecotoxicology for risk assessment in arid zones: some key issues.  Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology  vol. 32 (1): p.1-10, 1997.  In hot arid zones the major sources of contamination by toxicants are: (1) plant protection and vector control in wet zones; (2) large-scale crop protection campaigns in dry and ephemeral wet zones; (3) refuse and obsolete pesticides in dry zones; and (4) mining. The vulnerability of ecosystems to contaminants is closely related to water flow. In dry areas, species are susceptible to factors that interfere with the ecophysiological properties regulating water loss. Most hot arid areas are found at low latitudes where temperatures show striking extremes both in time and space. Living organisms are physiologically resistant and/or show adaptive behaviour to these temperature extremes. Very little is known about the effects of toxicants on these key resistant and adaptive functions, although by extrapolation a few assumptions can be made. Most wet areas show a spatial concentration of both human activity and wildlife.  In mesic zones, the contamination of water represents a health risk to both humans and other living organisms. The vast majority of aquatic communities are those inhabiting temporary pools and streams. Their populations are characterized by short reproductive cycles and/or long dormant stages. Toxicants affecting growth in these areas have been shown to have a deleterious effect. In a synthesis of existing knowledge the most prominent gaps are identified and priorities for further research are made.
#|Evtushenko, N Y ; Sytnik, Y M ; Shapoval, T N ; Kuklya, I G.  Heavy metals in the fish of the middle reaches of the Danube River.  WATER RESOURCES  vol. 20, no. 5, pp. 533-541 vol. 20, no. 5, 1993-1993.  Data from the international expedition Blue Danube'90 on the concentrations of heavy metals in the fish of the middle reaches of the Danube are given. The following species were examined: goldfish, bream, sterlet, silver bream, blue bream, roach (Hungary), above-mentioned undermouth, vimba, chop, and sander (Yugoslavia). Heavy metals (Cu, Zn, Cd, Mn, Fe, Pb, Co, Ni, Sr, and Cr) were found in the fins, gill covers, gills, scale, skin, muscles, liver, gonads, brain, intestine, spleen, and kidneys of the fish. A comparative analysis of the heavy metal contents in fish on the Hungarian and Yugoslavian reaches of the Middle Danube, with data obtained by the Danube expedition in March, 1988 is made.
#|FALANDYSZ J; DANISIEWICZ D.  BIOCONCENTRATION FACTORS BCF OF SILVER IN WILD AGARICUS CAMPESTRIS.  BULLETIN OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY; 55 (1). 1995. 122-129.
#|Farabee, David L; Wilson, Patricia S.  The Balancing Act: Achieving Total Reuse.  1996 Water Reuse Conference Proceedings, San Diego, CA.  February 25-28, 1996, p 1095-1106. AWWA.  The reuse of reclaimed wastewater, especially for irrigation, is increasingly common. In arid regions, the primary motivation for reuse is the value of the reclaimed water for irrigation. In Florida, however, reuse is usually motivated by regulatory restrictions on surface water discharges.  For that reason, reuse systems that can completely avoid discharging are preferred.  Because of the seasonal characteristics of irrigation demands, most Florida reuse systems include an alternate disposal method, such as deep well irrigation or rapid infiltration basins, for use during wet weather. In a few cases, however, total reuse is achieved. The City of Venice, Florida, is one such case. Venice operates a utilities system that provides reclaimed water to a variety of customers for irrigation of lawns, golf courses, and citrus groves. The system has successfully reclaimed essentially all the City's wastewater for reuse by accommodating variations in demand and supply with a combination of seasonal storage, alternate irrigation water sources, and selected interruption of service to non-essential irrigation areas. As a result of this success, the City has conserved potable water sources, provided for economical irrigation of residential areas, and avoided complex regulatory procedures associated with discharge to surface waters.
#|Farrell-Poe, K.L.  Ranjha, A.Y.; Ramalingam, S.  Bacterial contributions by rural municipalities in agricultural watersheds.  Transactions of the ASAE. Jan/Feb 1997. v. 40 (1)  p. 97-101.  Four rural municipalities were evaluated for their bacterial contributions to the nonpoint source pollution (NPSP) in the Little Bear agricultural watershed.  Total and fecal coliform were investigated to determine the bacterial contributions of these municipalities. Grab samples collected from perennial streams upstream and downstream of these municipalities were collected for about 15 months in 1993-1994. Total and fecal coliform were statistically significantly higher downstream compared to upstream for each municipality. The number of total coliform bacteria in either the upstream or downstream samples did not exceed the State criterion of 5000/100 mL. However, the State numerical criteria for fecal coliform, 200/mL, was exceeded in downstream samples at least five times over the 15-month period for all four municipalities. Bacterial nonpoint source pollution from rural municipalities should be incorporated in the predictive computer models used to determine total NPSP from agricultural watersheds.
#|Fastenau, R A.  Update on enforcement of NPDES permits through citizen suits.  JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL PERMITTING vol. 3, no. 4, pp. 521-526.  1994.  Section 301 of the Clean Water Act (CWA) prohibits the discharge of any pollutant by any person into the navigable waters of the United States, except as in compliance with the specified provisions of the CWA. One of the most significant provisions is the requirement for a facility to obtain a National Pollutant Elimination Discharge Permit (NPDES) under Section 401. EPA and states with delegated CWA authority may enforce the terms of an NPDES permit through administrative, civil, or criminal enforcement actions. Additionally, pursuant to Section 505(a) of the CWA, any citizen may commence a suit against a person who is alleged to be in violation of (1) an effluent standard or limitation, or (2) an order issued by the Administrator or a state with respect to such standard or limitation. In citizen suit litigation, federal district courts may enforce an effluent standard or limitation, apply any appropriate civil penalties, and significantly, may award costs of litigation including attorneys' fees to any prevailing party.  With the many demands placed on federal and state environmental agencies and the proliferation of active environmental groups, the citizen suit enforcement provision has become an increasingly popular enforcement tool and an area to which industry must be prepared to respond. This article will discuss some recent decisions interpreting the citizen suit provisions, the Clinton Administration's position regarding citizen suit enforcement, and proposed legislation that may also have a significant impact on future citizen suit litigation.
#|Fehrs, Jeffrey E., C. T.  TCLP: Results for Various Wood Waste.  C&D Debris Recycl  v4, n1, p26(2) Jan-Feb 97.  The Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP) is used in the classification of hazardous wastes according to EPA regulations. The TCLP uses an acidic extraction fluid in a single process to determine the mobility of organic pollutants and metals. The acidic fluid is determined according to the alkalinity of the waste, and the pollutants under consideration. After 18 hours of agitation, the extraction fluid is filtered and tested for pollutant concentrations. If the concentrations exceed EPA standards, the waste is classified as hazardous. Regulatory levels are presented for arsenic, barium, cadmium, chromium, lead, mercury, selenium, silver, cresol, and penthachlorophenol.
#|Fergen R E, Cooke J P, Boothe P, & Bloetscher F.  1997.  An overview of metals permitting alternatives the importance of clean chemistry techniques for trace metal sampling of domestic wastewater and paper mill treated effluents and receiving waters.  Dwyer, F. J., T. R. Doane and M. L. Hinman (Ed.). ASTM STP, 1317.  Environmental toxicology and risk assessment: Modeling and risk assessment (Sixth Volume); Sixth Symposium on Environmental Toxicology and Risk Assessment, Orlando, Florida, USA, April 15-18, 1996. vii+564p. ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials): Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 415-426.
#|Ferrari L; Demichelis S O; Garcia M E; Torre F R De La; Salibian A.  Premetamorphic anuran tadpoles as test organism for an acute aquatic toxicity assay. Environmental Toxicology and Water Quality  12 (2):p117-121 1997.  An acute semistatic bioassay method for the evaluation of water quality in highly polluted river samples is described. Bufo arenarum young tadpoles as test organism were used. This anuran is a species of the native herpetofauna of Argentina. The technique was checked with surface water samples of Reconquista River, collected from four sites along the low-to-high pollution gradient. The controls were run with artificial hard water. The sensitivity of tadpoles to toxicants was checked by incubation of test animals in sublethal and lethal cadmium solutions as a standard toxicant. Mortality was registered daily for 96 h and the results were expressed as cumulative mortality. Statistical analysis was carried out by means of a multiway factor analysis of variance with Bonferroni range test. Each assayed sample was chemically analyzed in order to determine the content of heavy metals, and organochlorine and organophosphorous insecticides. This bioassay did allow us to discriminate clearly between high and low polluted samples showing a good toxicological correlation with the determined chemical profile.
#|Field, R. ; Pitt, R. ; Lalor, M. ; Brown, M. ; Vilkelis, W.  Investigation of Dry-Weather Pollutant Entries into Storm-Drainage Systems.  Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH. Risk Reduction Engineering Lab.  Report No.: EPA/600/J-94/451, c1994, 25p. Pub. in Jnl. of Environmental Engineering, Paper no. 6094, v120 n5 p1044-1066  Sep/Oct 94.  Prepared in cooperation with Vanderbilt Univ., Nashville, TN.  Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering. Sponsored by Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH. Risk Reduction Engineering Lab. The article describes the results of a series of research tasks to develop a procedure to investigate non-stormwater (dry-weather) entries into storm drainage systems. Dry-weather flows discharging from storm drainage systems can contribute significant pollutant loadings to receiving waters and although they can originate from many sources, the most significant include sanitary wastewater, industrial and commercial pollutant entries, failing septic tank systems, and vehicle maintenace acivties.  Protocols are discussed to: characterize the drainage area; locate and identify polluted outfalls; estimate the magnitudes of non-stormwater entries; and locate and correct the non-stormwater entries into the storm drainage system.
#|Filipic, M ; Toman, M J. Ecotoxicological studies using modified Ames bioassay.  PROCEEDINGS OF THE 18TH BIENNIAL CONFERENCE OF THE INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF WATER QUALITY. Bally, D ; Asano, T ; Bhamidimarri, R ; Chin, K K; Grabow, W O K ; Hall, E R; Ohgaki, S ; Orhon, D ; Milburn, A ; Purdon, C D ; Nagle, P T(eds ).  WATER SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY vol. 34, no. 7-8 pp. 1-7, 1996. Health and environmental risk assessment of river and wastewaters based on single chemicals is limited by the number of chemicals that can be identified and to those chemicals for which toxicity and mutagenicity data exist. In this study Salmonella/microsome mutagenicity assay was evaluated as a potentially useful biomonitoring system for river water and wastewater. Standard assay was modified to allow testing of up to 2.5 ml of nonconcentrated water sample and by introducing 90 minutes of preincubation. Mutagenic activity of nonconcentrated samples was compared to the mutagenic activity of XAD-2 extracts of the same samples. Eighteen river water samples, two wastewater samples and one sample of water leaking from municipal waste dump were tested. Mutagenicity was detected in three nonconcentrated river water samples, both nonconcentrated wastewater samples and in the sample of the water leaking from the municipal waste dump. The mutagenic profiles of nonconcentrated samples were different from the mutagenic profiles of the XAD-2 extracts. The modified method was sensitive enough to detect mutagens present in more polluted river water (class IV), in wastewaters and in water leaking from the municipal dump. For the assessment of the impact of the mutagenic river and wastewaters on the environment, calculations from the results of nonconcentrated samples should be used as it seems that calculations from the results of the extracts are leading to the underestimation of mutagenic potency. Mutagenic profiles of the extracts are a useful guide for further chemical and biological analysis to trace the sources of the mutagens and to introduce measures to reduce them.
#|Filipic,-M.  Mutagenicity and toxicity of water extracts from the Sora River area. MUTAT.-RES. 1995  vol. 342, no. 1-2, pp. 1-8.  The present study was conducted on the waters of the Sora river and effluents entering to the river. The samples were extracted with XAD-2 resin at different pH and tested for mutagenicity with the modified Ames test using strains S. typhimurium TA98 and TA100. The majority of the mutagenic activity of the samples was found in the neutral pH fraction of the extracts. Strain TA98 in the presence of metabolic activation was the most sensitive condition of mutagenicity. Of the eleven sample extracts, six were positive; neutral fractions of the effluent from wastewater treatment plant, the water leaching from the municipal dump, the water from the lake lying beneath the dump and the untreated effluent, and acid fractions of two samples taken directly from the river. The water leaching from the municipal dump was also mutagenic and toxic without previous extraction. Mutagenic responses before and after extraction of this sample indicate that components responsible for mutagenicity were partly extracted in the neutral fraction. The toxicity of water samples and extracts was tested with Microtox assay, and acid fractions of the extracts were more toxic than the neutral fractions. Comparing the toxicity to the mutagenicity data indicates that components responsible for toxic and mutagenic response were at least partly separated between acid and neutral fraction respectively.
#|Fisher Daniel J.; Knott Melvin H; Turley Steven D; Turley Bonnie S; Yonkos Lance T; Ziegler Gregory P.  The acute whole effluent toxicity of storm water from an international airport. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry  14 (6):p1103-1111, 1995. In October 1990, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency promulgated application requirements with deadlines for storm-water dischargers associated with industrial activity and certain municipal systems. Major airports have a number of hydrocarbon-based contaminants that could appear in storm-water runoff. In addition, ethylene, diethylene, and propylene glycol deicing and anti-icing mixtures are used during freezing and near-freezing weather. The objective of this study was to characterize the potential acute impact on aquatic life from industrial storm-water discharges from an international airport. Samples from winter storm events caused acute toxicity to both the fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas) and the daphnid (Daphnia magna), with LC50 values for both species as low as 1.0 to 2.0% effluent. The toxicity of the samples was due to the various glycol-based deicer/anti-icer mixtures used during these events. High oxygen demands and elevated total nitrogen levels are other potential problems during anti-icing/deicing activities. Samples from rain events during the nonwinter months at the airport did not cause acute toxicity unless associated with fuel spills. As a result of this study, a new discharge permit has been issued for this airport, requiring the implementation of plans for the collection and recycling and/or disposal of the deicer/anti-icer mixtures.
#|Fisher, N S ; Wang, Wen Xiong.  Trophic transfer of silver to marine herbivores: A review of recent studies.  ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY vol. 17, no. 4, pp. 562-571, 1998.  We review recent progress in understanding the trophic transfer of silver (Ag) in marine herbivores, especially mussels that have been extensively used as biomonitors of coastal contamination. A bioenergetic-based kinetic model is invaluable in predicting the trophic transfer and bioaccumulation of Ag in aquatic animals. Critical parameters that need to be quantified in predicting trophic transfer include Ag assimilation efficiency (AE) from ingested food particles, animal feeding rates, and Ag efflux rates. Silver AEs in marine herbivores are generally low (<30%). Assimilation efficiencies from ingested sediments tend to be lower than those from ingested phytoplankton. Various biological and chemical factors, including Ag distribution in phytoplankton cytoplasm, gut passage time, importance of intracellular versus extracellular digestion, and metal desorption at lowered pHs typical of invertebrate guts, all influence Ag assimilation from ingested particles. Many experimental studies show that uptake from the dissolved phase exceeds uptake via ingestion in the overall Ag bioaccumulation in aquatic animals. However, these results are probably not predictive of field situations due to their simplistic experimental conditions in which fluctuations of feeding conditions of animals and physicochemistry of Ag are not considered. In mussels, the kinetic model predicts that either the solute or particulate pathway can dominate Ag overall uptake in nature, and this is dependent on Ag partition coefficients for suspended particles and Ag AE. Silver is the only metal that varies substantially in the importance of different uptake pathways due to its very high particle reactivity and high uptake rate from the dissolved phase. Total suspended solids (TSS) loads can sharply affect Ag bioaccumulation in mussels because high TSS loads can dilute Ag concentrations in both dissolved and particulate phases. Processes affecting Ag trophic transfer and bioaccumulation are discussed.
#|Fleming, L E ; Watkins, S ; Kaderman, R ; Levin, B ; Ayyar, D R ; Bizzio, M ; Stephens, D ; Bean, J A.  Mercury exposure in humans through food consumption from the Everglades of Florida.  THIRD INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON MERCURY AS A GLOBAL POLLUTANT. Porcella, D ; Huckabee, J ; Wheatley, B (eds ). WATER, AIR, AND SOIL POLLUTION vol. 80, no. 1-4 pp. 41-48, 1995.  In March 1989, The Florida Department of Health and Rehabilitative Services (HRS) issued a Health Advisory recommending the limit consumption of several fish species caught from the Everglades region of South Florida due to elevated methylmercury (MeHg) levels (average 2-3 ppm in fish meat). There were no reports of clinical MeHg poisoning in humans in Florida, although deaths of Florida panthers were attributed to mercury (Hg), poisoning. This study evaluated the extent of MeHg exposure in persons eating contaminated fish in the Everglades region. Populations at risk were including sport fishermen, Everglades Residents and subsistence fishermen. Over 1700 individuals were approached those who had eaten fish or wildlife from the contaminated areas at least once/month for the prior three months were asked to participate. Three hundred and fifty (350) participants completed a brief questionnaire and provided a hair sample for Hg analysis. In 119 (36%) of individuals with levels above the limits of detection, the mean total Hg in hair was 3.62 plus or minus 3.0 mu g/g [ plus or minus standard deviation] with a range of 1.28 - 15.57. The most at risk populations identified with respect to Hg levels were Blacks and men. Although the majority of the participants had fished in the Everglades for many years (> 15 years), they reported relatively low intake of fish and had low hair Hg levels compared with similar populations in prior studies of other populations at risk. Although 71% of participants knew of the State Health Advisories concerning ingestion of Hg contaminated fish from the Everglades, this did not change their consumption habits. In addition, Blacks, individuals of lower income and of lower education levels were less likely to know about the Health Advisories. Given recent studies of neurologic effects from relatively low in utero MeHg exposure, the continuation of the Mercury Health Advisory and wildlife monitoring in the Everglades are warranted, especially for women of childbearing age and children. However, public education must be targeted for the population at risk identified in this study in order to reach these populations more effectively.
#|FLIPPIN-DUDLEY, SYNDI JAYE.  VEGETATION MEASUREMENTS FOR ESTIMATING FLOW RESISTANCE (FLOOD CONTROL, RIPARIAN VEGETATION).  PH.D., 1997.  The conventional concepts of flood conveyance through an engineered channel have evolved into a concept of stream restoration, rehabilitation, and/or ecological enhancement. Riparian vegetation has become an integral component of the flood channel because it stabilizes stream banks, provides shade that prevents excessive water temperature fluctuations, supports wildlife and performs a essential role in nutrient cycling and water quality. Concurrent with the benefits provided by riparian vegetation arethe issues pertaining to flood hazard mitigation. Vegetation increases flow resistance which has a direct effect on the discharge capacity and the level of flood protection provided by the channel. Several methods have been proposed for determining Manning in vegetated channels. These methods recognize that the physical characteristics and growth patterns of the vegetation are important factors in evaluating flow resistance. However, minimal research has been conducted to develop standard methods for quantifying the physical properties of the vegetation. A cooperative study between the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and Colorado State University was conducted to develop a method of characterizing vegetation for the purpose of determining resistance to flow in open channels or floodplains.  A horizontal point frame was developed to directly measure vegetation density, the frontal area of the vegetation projected onto a plane perpendicular to the direction of flow. The horizontal point frame was compared to two existing methods for estimating vegetation density. The comparative study indicated that the horizontal point frame technique was rapid and more objective than other methods for evaluating vegetation density. A standard method for application of the horizontal point frame is proposed. A field study was performed in a vegetated channel located near Stillwater, Oklahoma to demonstrate the use of the horizontal point frame and its role in a comprehensive approach to predicting resistance to flow. The channel was characterized for geometry, slope, and vegetation density. A series of nine flows were conveyed through the channel and velocity and depth measurements were obtained for two vegetative conditions: (1) without green foliage and with vegetative debris present; and (2) with green foliage present and without vegetative debris. The vegetation and flow measurements were used to develop a relation for the coefficient of drag for woody vegetation which can be input into the Fischenich equation to predict Manning n.
#|Flood-K. In-situ bioassay study to investigate the acute lethality, histological damage and the bioavailability of metals to fish downstream of two mine-tailings effluent discharges, Manitouwadge, Ontario. Ontario. Ministry of Environment & Energy, Toronto. 1996. 58p.  Documents the environmental effects of two mining operations on receiving waters in the Manitouwadge area of Ontario. Investigative work included field bioassays using rainbow trout at various receiving water locations adjacent to the mine sites. Those tests measured acute fish lethality over an initial 96-hour period, and chronic toxicity involving the potential for histological damage to the surviving fish over a further ten-day exposure. Some of the fish were analysed for bioconcentration of heavy metals. Laboratory bioassays (on fish and Daphnia) were also performed on grab samples of tailings effluent.
#|Flowers GC; Suhayda JN; Clymire JW; McPherson GL; Koplitz LV; Poirrier MA.  Impact of industrial effluent diversion on Bayou Trepagnier, Louisiana.  ENVIRONMENTAL & ENGINEERING GEOSCIENCE, 1998, V4, N1 (SPR), P 77-91. Industrial effluent from the Norco Manufacturing Complex (NMC), a major refinery located 22 mi west of New Orleans, was diverted from Bayou Trepagnier to the Mississippi River in February 1995. The possibility that effluent diversion might liberate contaminants from bottom sediments and generally degrade water quality generated concern among environmentalists and regulatory agencies. Hydrologic studies completed to address these concerns indicate that the effluent was generally a minor component of the mater budget, comprising about 10 percent of tidal flow into the drainage basin. However, during intermittent, low-water conditions when the bayou was confined to its banks, effluent volume on average probably exceeded tidal flow. Although the effluent generally constituted only a small proportion of total discharge, it often had a profound effect on water quality because low flow velocities and shallow depths limited mixing of water masses. Comparison of water quality data before and after diversion shows that median temperature, salinity, and pH have decreased at stations in the headwaters near the NMC outfall, whereas the dissolved oxygen content of the water column has increased or remained the same.  Monthly monitoring data also indicate that, in general, Pb remains bound in bottom sediments despite significant changes in water chemistry after diversion. Hardness, total dissolved solids, and chlorinity have increased along the bayou, reflecting a greater influence of Lake Pontchartrain on water chemistry after diversion.  Overall, water quality has improved in Bayou Trepagnier, which should benefit the biota, particularly in the headwaters where harsh conditions existed prior to diversion.
#|FORD L; HOLTBY N; KNOX R .  Building an effective NPDES Application : Wastewater dischargers have opportunity to develop flexible permits.  Water environment & technology, 1997, 9 (4) 51-55.
#|Forsythe, B L ,II; Cobb, G P ; La Point, T W ; Klaine, S J.  The bioconcentration and bioaccumulation of silver in an experimental freshwater ecosystem.  Andren, A W ; Bober, T W  (eds ).  REPORT NUMBER: WISCU-W-96-001,  pp. 185-190, 1996.  Int. Conf. Transport, Fate and Effects of Silver in the Environment.  Madison, WI., 1996, Aug 25-28.  Silver is a highly toxic metal that can be found in industrial and municipal effluents and receiving waters (Bard et al., 1976 and Dagon, 1973). However, little has been done to examine the possibility of foodchain effects as have been reported for other metals such as copper and selenium (Besser et al., 1993 and Ogle and Knight, 1989).  Terhaar et al. (1977) attempted to determine the extent of bioconcentration and bioaccumulation of silver, as Ag(S sub(2)O sub(3)) sub(2) super(3-), in a multi-trophic level system. The green alga, Scenedesmus, exhibited increased uptake of silver over time. Daphnia did bioconcentrate silver to levels higher than the water (BCF approximately 7.5). It was unclear if daphnids bioaccumulated silver through ingestion of contaminated algae. Bioconcentration of silver was seen with fathead minnows, Pimephales promelas, but they did not accumulate silver from ingested daphnids. The objective of the studies described here was to determine the disposition of silver in a laboratory system in an effort to better understand silver's effect in receiving waters.
#|Fort, D J ; Stover, E L.  Long-term whole effluent toxicity control: interaction between industrial pretreatment and toxicity reduction evaluation (TRE) programs.  INDUSTRIAL WASTE CONFERENCE. pp. 405-411, 1997.  WEST LAFAYETTE, IN (USA) CONFERENCE DATE: 1996 May 6-8.  ANN ARBOR PRESS, INC. CHELSEA, MI. Increased regulatory concern over whole effluent toxicity control for National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permittees has warranted the development of effective long-term whole effluent toxicity control strategies. At the municipal level, the Industrial Pretreatment program represents one of the best opportunities for long-term whole effluent toxicity source control and regulation.The Industrial Pretreatment program may be effectively used during three primary stages of NPDES permit toxicity testing: (1) prior to toxicity problems as a preventative tool, (2) during the TRE program as a means of identifying and controlling sources of the toxicant(s), and (3) following TRE studies as a means of controlling toxicity through surveying potential problem users, cost-effective aquatic toxicity and microbial inhibition monitoring of users, and public education and outreach programs. Overall, dischargers that have utilized the benefits of the industrial program have been substantially more successful in controlling whole effluent toxicity that those whoeither did not effectively use the program or were not involved in an Industrial Pretreatment program. In this chapter, we describe the successful connection between the TRE program and the Industrial Pretreatment program in the long-term control of whole effluent toxicity for both industrial and municipal wastewater treatment facilities.
#|Fort, D J ; Stover, E L. Impact of toxicities and potential interactions of flocculants and coagulant aids on whole effluent toxicity testing.  WATER ENVIRONMENT RESEARCH vol. 67, no. 6, pp. 921-925, 1995. The acute toxicities of both organic flocculants (polymer) and inorganic coagulant aids (Al sub(2)(SO sub(4)) sub(3) and FeCl sub(3)) to the commonly used whole effluent toxicity test species Ceriodaphnia dubia were evaluated. Results from these studies suggested thatcationic polymer flocculants have the potential of inducing acute toxicity to C. dubia at extremely low concentrations as opposed to the inorganic coagulant aids. Because polymers and inorganic coagulant aids are more commonly used in conjunction with one another, assessment of potential toxic interaction between the two types of additives was evaluated, as well, using joint-compound interaction modeling. Results from these studies indicated that cationic polymers and FeCl sub(3) or Al sub(2)(SO sub(4)) sub(3) seemed to act synergistically (greater than additive toxicity). Overall, these studies clearly demonstrated that both the type of flocculating agent used and the type of treatment application strongly influence toxicity.
#|Fort, D. J. ; Delphon, J. ; Powers, C. R. ; Helems, R. ; Gonzalez, R. ; Stover, E.L.  Development of automated methods of identifying toxicants in the environment.  BULLETIN OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY vol. 54, no. 1, pp.104-111.  1995.  Many NPDES permits today require the development of Toxicity Reduction Evaluation (TRE) programs designed to reduce toxicity toacceptable levels when effluent toxicity is detected. The first of two approaches commonly used in the abatement of effluent toxicity is treatment without the specific identification and confirmation of the causative toxicants. The second method involves specific identification and confirmation of the causative toxicants with the goal of locating and eliminating the problem at its source. Specific methods for characterizing, identifying and confirming causative toxicants were developed by USEPA in the late 1980s. These procedures typically entail manual physical/chemical manipulation of a toxic sample followed by toxicity assessment and analytical analysis in three separate steps.  The need for more rapid, cost-effective, and analytical methods of identifying environmental toxicants warranted the development of automated procedures using commercially available equipment and techniques. In this report, the development and preliminary validation of an automated identification methodology for water-borne toxicants using an Ion Chromatography/High Pressure Liquid Chromatograph (IC/HPLC) is presented. Development of the methodology included testing the system with synthetic media blanks to ensure that the equipment was not introducing toxicity, as well as evaluating the purity of the samples prepared. Ammonia, dissolved solids, copper, pentachlorophenol, and diazinon toxicant standards, as well as a composited mixture of the individual toxicants, were also used to develop and fine-tune the operation of the automated system.  Preliminary validation of the automated methodology was performed by comparing the results obtained from toxicity identification studies with an industrial wastewater effluent using conventional methods to studies employing the newly developed automated methods. Preliminary results indicated that the automated approach will provide the scientific community with a rapid, cost-effective, automated method for performing standard toxicity identification studies.
#|Fort, Douglas J., Stover Group, Stillwater, OK; Stover, Enos L.; Copenhaver, Michael B.  Corrosion-Induced Whole Effluent Toxicity from a Cooling Tower: a Toxicity Reduction Evaluation Case Study.  Purdue Univ/et al 50th Ind Waste Conf, West Lafayette, IN (Ann Arbor Press) p627(10), May 8-10, 95.  A Toxicity Reduction Evaluation program was initiated at an industrial facility discharging approximately 5 million gal/d of recirculating cooling water obtained from a large freshwater river in order to assess the causes of toxicity, locate potential sources of the suspected toxicants, and identify practicable toxicity reduction methodologies. The program consisted of two primary phases: toxicity identification evaluation, and toxicity reduction option evaluation. Each phase is described. Results indicated that the toxicity source was copper, so the toxicity reduction program was developed to achieve economical, long-term control of Cu loss from the entire cooling-water system utilizing corrosion-inhibiting chemical additives. The resulting data showed that the frequency of whole effluent toxicity was reduced significantly by reducing Cu loss from the cooling system via chemical treatment of two of the three cooling tower units with corrosion-inhibiting azoles.
#|Fort, Douglas J.; Stover, Enos L.  Joint Toxic Actions of Organic Flocculating Polymers: Impact on Whole Effluent Toxicity Testing-Part 3.  Purdue Univ/et al 50th Ind Waste Conf, West Lafayette, IN (Ann Arbor Press) p601(10), May 8-10, 95.  Because polymers and inorganic coagulant aids are used commonly in conjunction with one another for wastewater treatment, a study was conducted to assess joint-polymer actions using several polymer mixtures. The polymers used were cationic polyquaternary amine, cationic epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine, anionic polyacrylamide, and non-ionic polyacrylamide. Toxicity was assessed using Ceriodaphnia dubia. Results indicated that, at extremely low concentrations, the cationic polymers exhibited the potential of being toxic to C. dubia. Inorganic coagulant aids were significantly less toxic than their organic counterparts. In addition, the toxicity of coagulant aids when used in final effluent polishing was dramatically more significant than when used in secondary clarification. The data indicated that the cationic polymers and inorganic coagulant aids may act synergistically or potentiate the toxicity of each other. Mixtures of cationic polyquaternary amine and cationic epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine, and polyquaternary amine and anionic polyacrylamide polymers appeared to act in a concentration-additive manner, whereas the anionic polyacrylamide and non-ionic polyacrylamide mixtures acted in a response-additive manner.
#|Fossum, Kenneth D., Davis, Raymond G.  Physical, chemical, biological, and toxicity data from the study of urban stormwater and ephemeral streams, Maricopa County, Arizona, water years 1992-95.  Flood Control District of Maricopa County.  Geological Survey (U.S.) Tucson, Ariz.  :  U.S. Dept. of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey ; Denver, CO : Branch of Information Services [distributor], 1996.
#|Foster S C; Burks S L; Fort D J; Stover E L; Matlock M D.  Development and evaluation of a nondestructive measure of fish growth for sublethal toxicity assessment.  Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology  53 (1):p 85-90 1994.
#|Foy, R H ; Kirk, M.  Agriculture and water quality: A regional study. J. INST. WATER ENVIRON. MANAGE. vol. 9, no. 3, pp. 247-256, 1995.  Water quality, measured on a fisheries ecosystem scale of 1 (good/salmonid) to 6 (bad/fish absent), of forty-two lowland streams in two Northern Ireland river catchments was inversely correlated with the stocking rate of grazing animals. A decrease in water quality of one class was associated with an increase in the combined grazing/stocking rate of cattle and sheep of 0.6 dairy cow equivalents/ha. This dairy cow equivalent stocking rate was significantly correlated with maximum BOD and total amm.N concentrations and minimum dissolved-oxygen levels. The worst pollution events, with BOD concentrations is excess of 100 mg/l, occurred at the end of May and were caused by discharges of silage effluent. Smaller BOD peaks, which occurred in late winter and early spring, were related to the land spreading of animal slurries. It was concluded that poultry and pig farms were not having a major impact on water quality.
#|Francisco-D.E.; Elias-M.C.; LaRocca-C.A.; DiGiano-F.A.; Maerker-M.J.  Chronic Toxicity Bioassay with 'Ceriodaphnia dubia': (1) an Evaluation of a Toxicity Test-Based Approach for Determining the Sources of Chronic Toxicity; and (2) an Evaluation of Culture/Dilution Waters and Diet as Determinants of Test Outcomes. North Carolina Water Resources Research Inst., Raleigh.  North Carolina Univ. at Chapel Hill. Dept. of Environmental Sciences and Engineering.  Geological Survey, Reston, VA. Water Resources Div. Aug 93. 113p. In order to limit the discharge of toxic materials in toxic amounts to the waterways of the United States, the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has developed a 7-day survival and reproduction toxicity bioassay test using the freshwater cladoceran, Ceriodaphnia dubia. The North Carolina Division of Environmental Management has developed a less expensive modification of this test called the NC Ceriodaphnia Mini-Chronic Pass/Fail Toxicity Test. These tests are used to monitor discharges from wastewater treatment plants. Failure to satisfy the requirements (evidence of either acute or chronic toxicity) of the discharge permit constitutes an effluent violation. Effluent violations require that studies be conducted to determine the means to eliminate the violation. The present investigation had three basic objectives: (1) to develop and test a toxicity test-based method for locating the sources of toxic materials discharged into a collection system; (2) to investigate the effect of culture/dilution water on the health of C. dubia and reproducibility of the NC Ceriodaphnia Mini-Chronic Pass/Fail Toxicity Test; and (3) to investigate the effect of 3 diets on the health and robustness of C. dubia.
#|Francisco-D.E.; Terrell-J.A.; Melia-G.M.  Evaluation of the Source(s) of Test Animals as a Component of Interlaboratory Variability in the 'NC Mini-Chronic Pass/Fail Ceriodaphnia Effluent Toxicity Test. North Carolina Water Resources Research Inst., Raleigh. North Carolina Univ. at Chapel Hill. Dept. of Environmental Sciences and Engineering. Geological Survey, Reston, VA. Water Resources Div. Jul 96. 70p. In order to limit the discharge of toxic materials in toxic amounts to the waterways of the United States, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has developed a 7-day survival and reproduction toxicity bioassay test using the freshwater cladoceran, Ceriodaphnia dubia. The North Carolina Division of Environmental Management has developed a less expensive modification of this test called the NC Ceriodaphnia Mini-Chronic Pass/Fail Toxicity Test. The study was designed to test whether publications of C. dubia from different sources (commercial laboratories) were equally sensitive to test toxicants when all other factors which effect survival and reproduction were identical.
#|Franks, A. P., Harper, P. J., & Bilo, M.  (1996).  Relationship between risk of death and risk of dangerous dose for toxic substances.  Journal of Hazardous Materials v 51 n 1-3, p 11-34. The relationship between risk of dangerous dose or worse and risk of `death' (expressed as LD50 or worse, or LD95 or worse) has been studied for acutely toxic substances using the Health & Safety Executive's (HSE) Risk Assessment Tool, RISKAT. The analysis was carried out for chlorine, ammonia, hydrogen fluoride and sulphur dioxide, at a range of major hazard sites. Consistent relationships, of the form y equals x**a/b, were found between individual risk of dangerous dose or worse and individual risk of `death'. These were y equals x**1**.**1**1/2.59 for LD50 and y equals x**1**.**2**3/5.62 for LD95, where y is the risk of `death' and x is the risk of dangerous dose or worse. It is thought that the form of this relationship arises from the way hazard ranges vary with distance and the way in which large releases of toxic material tend to have lower frequencies of occurrence than smaller releases. The existence of a consistent relationship between different substances is thought to be due to the way in which HSE selects the toxicological data it uses and the fact that all of the substances studied have a similar mechanism of toxic action.
#|French DP, Rines H, Gifford D, Keller A, & Pavignano S.  Guidance Document for Natural Resource Damage Assessment under the Oil Pollution Act of 1990. Primary Restoration.  EG and G Washington Analytical Services Center, Inc., Rockville, MD.; Applied Science Associates, Inc., Narragansett, RI.; Kearney (A.T.), Inc., Alexandria, VA.; Little (Arthur D.), Inc., Cambridge, MA.  TD3: The Primary Restoration Guidance Document provides a review of the state of the art for restoration of certain habitats and biological natural resources and an evaluation of potential restoration actions following injury to natural resources resulting from incidents. This document is meant to summarize existing information and methods so that informed decisions can be made in the restoration planning and implementation process. Although prepared primarily to provide guidance to natural resource trustees using the OPA regulations, others interested in the protection and restoration of injured natural resources and services may find the information contained in this document useful.  Final rept.  See also PB96-199450. Prepared in cooperation with Applied Science Associates, Inc., Narragansett, RI., Kearney (A.T.), Inc., Alexandria, VA. and Little (Arthur D.), Inc., Cambridge, MA. Sponsored by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Silver Spring, MD. Damage Assessment Center.
#|FRIAS J; RIBAS F; LUCENA F.  Critical study of the use of Pseudomonas fluorescens P17 to determine assimilable organic carbon (AOC). WATER RESEARCH; 28 (6). 1994. 1463-1469.  Assimilable organic carbon (AOC) is almost the only limiting factor for bacterial growth in water, and the main factor responsible for bacterial proliferation and related water quality deterioration. In distribution mains Pseudomonas fluorescens strain P17 is used as standard in a reproducible test for the determination of AOC in water. In order to establish the standard conditions for the use of this microorganism, a series of experiments was performed to determine growth yield in different conditions. These results indicate that the kinetics of the growth of P17 depends on several factors, which complicates its use in a standard method for AOC determination.
#|Frydenborg,-R.B.; Lurding,-K.M.  Resource-effective lake bioassessments for the determination of non-point source impairment in Florida. Annu. International Symposium of the North American Lake Management Society, Orlando, FL (USA) 31 Oct-5 Nov 1994.  LAKE-RESERV.-MANAGE. 1994  vol. 9, no. 2, p. 75.  Stormwater runoff is a serious threat to Florida's lakes. Comprehensive biological assessments which document the health of the State's lakes in relation to Water Quality Rules, are needed to target areas where better watershed management is required. Considering the vast numbers of lakes in the state (7000+), these assessments must be cost-effective, as well as legally defensible. As a pilot program, part of a State-wide lakes bioassessment initiative, the Dept. of Environmental Protection has conducted multi-disciplinary studies on 26 lakes. Half of these were potentially degraded lakes, which were matched with a paired reference lake, based upon ecological sub-region, lake size, and water residence time. Parameters studied included phytoplankton communities, chlorophyll a, algal growth potential, benthic macroinvertebrates, sediment particle size, and standard water chemistry variables. The lakes were sampled during October, when water temperature still exceeded 20 degree C (just missing the summer index period, thought to represent a worst case situation). This approach appeared to be useful in identifying impaired lakes. Biologically based measurements which were effective at discriminating between reference and test lakes (combining data from all ecoregions) included benthic taxa richness, benthic diversity, Hulbert's Lake Condition Index, % suspension feeders,the Ephemeroptera/Trichoptera/Odonata Index, % Ephemeroptera, % Amphipoda, phytoplankton density,and phytoplankton chlorophyll a. The Trophic State Index was able to distinguish between the lake categories, but was less satisfactory than the biological measurements in deciding relative lake health. A composite assessment index (the Florida Index of Lake Integrity), which utilizes the above mentioned biological parameters in its calculation, has been proposed.
#|Frye, R S ; Belden, R S.  You can't go home again: How anti-backsliding and antidegradation concepts from NPDES may plague CAA Title V permits as well.  JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL PERMITTING vol. 2, no. 3, pp. 387-398, 1993.  Two of the most vexatious aspects of wastewater discharge permitting under the Clean Water Act are the EPA policies on anti-backsliding and antidegradation. Although neither of these limitations was included in the Clean Water Act prior to 1987, they were developed and defended by EPA as logical steps to further the goals of the Clean Water Act. EPA's operating permit regulations under Title V of the Clean Air Act do not contain explicit anti-backsliding or antidegradation provisions. The history of the ad hoc development of anti-backsliding and antidegradation rules under the Clean Water Act, as well as the development of the Prevention of Significant Deterioration Program under the Clean Air Act, suggests that the natural evolution of the Title V operating permit program may be towards restrictions similar to those currently faced by NPDES permittees.
#|Fuksa, J K.  Attached and suspended biomass in streams: The share of biodegradation capacity.  THE ECOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE OF RIVER BOTTOM.  Bretschko, G ; Helesic, J ; Kubicek, F  (eds ).  FOLIA FAC. SCI. NAT. UNIV. MASARYK. BRUN. no. 91 pp. 25-28, 1995.  Symposium: River Bottom III, 1993 Sep 28-30.  MASARYK UNIVERSITY.  BRNO (CZECH REP.)  Respiration capacity of the attached component of heterotrophic biomass in two streams was measured using asbestos-cement plates previously overgrown by biomass as a model. In a shallow polluted brook attached biomass is responsible for more than 80% of total respiration capacity of the stream. In a big river the share of attached biomass is small. Nevertheless the difference of attached respiration before and under a pollution effluent is more distinct than that of suspended (drifting) biomass.
#|Fulmer, Donald G. The restoration potential of reservoirs in four Ohio ecoregions.  1993. (M.S.)--Kent State University.
#|Gagne, F ; Blaise, C.  Available intracellular Zn as a potential indicator of heavy metal exposure in rainbow trout hepatocytes.  ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND WATER QUALITY vol. 11, no. 4, pp. 319-325, 1996.  The measurement of available Zn in rainbow trout hepatocytes exposed to a selection of heavy metals was evaluated as a potential end point for assessing heavy metal exposure. Induction of metallothionein, a well-known biomarker for heavy metal exposure, was also evaluated concurrently with available Zn measurements. Rainbow trout hepatocytes were exposed to several concentrations of copper, cadmium, mercury, silver, arsenite, and zinc salts for 48 h at 15 degree C. Hepatocytes were also exposed to industrial effluent from a metallurgy plant. After the exposure period, hepatocytes were analyzed for metallothionein (MT) and available Zn levels. The results showed that, with divalent metals, available Zn increased with MT levels there was a significant correlation (R = 0,600 p = 0.0006) between the two. Moreover, the industrial effluent proved to be an inducer of available Zn in hepatocytes, as well as of MT. However, cells exposed to Ag responded with higher levels of available Zn before showing a corresponding MT induction in cells. Inversely, exposure to arsenite led to increased MT without any change in available Zn levels. The value for available Zn tended to be somewhat overestimated in the presence of metals such as Hg, and to a lesser extent Cd. The evaluation of available Zn, in addition to MT, appears to be a valid way of assessing exposure to mono- and divalent metals, though with arsenite, the MT induction response was higher than that of available Zn. The specificity of the available Zn biomarker for heavy metal exposure should be investigated more thoroughly for comparison with the MT biomarker. The measurement of available Zn holds promise as a new biomarker of heavy metal exposure.
#|Gagne,-F.; Blaise,-C. Hepatic metallothionein level and mixed function oxidase activity in fingerling rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) after acute exposure to pulp and paper mill effluents. WATER-RES. 1993  vol. 27, no. 11, pp. 1669-1682.  Hepatic metallothionein (MT) levels and mixed function oxidase (MFO) activity (7-ethoxyresorufin-o-deethylase or EROD) were measured in fingerling rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) exposed to sublethal concentrations of 12 pulp and paper effluents, after completion of 96 h static acute lethality assays. Barring one primary-treated effluent where MFO levels were significantly depressed and two secondary-treated effluents where no significant MFO induction were observed, all other effluents triggered significant induction of MT and EROD, regardless of mill process/treatment or of effluent lethality and chemical characteristics. MT and EROD inductions were significant, however, at higher concentrations for secondary-treated effluents than for primary-treated ones. Lethal (96 h LC sub(50)s) to sublethal (MT and EROD lowest observable effect concentrations) ratios were variable and indicated that significant biochemical effects were present at effluent concentrations that were roughly 4-33 (MT) and 3-59 (EROD) times lower than the LC sub(50). Enzyme induction ranged from 1.3 to 2.5-fold for MT and from 1.3 to 9.4-fold for EROD compared to controls. Limited chemical data available suggest that there were indeed classes of compounds present capable of inducing MT or EROD. Observed patterns of MT/MFO responses also suggest that contaminant interactions may have interfered with induction for some of the effluents studied. Refinements of this combined (sub)lethal bioassay procedure are envisaged to determine whether it can provide an efficient means of detecting hazardous chemicals in industrial wastewaters.
#|Gagnon, M M ; Bussieres, D ; Dodson, J J ; Hodson, P V. White sucker (Catostomus commersoni) growth and sexual maturation in pulp mill-contaminated and reference rivers.  ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY vol. 14, no. 2, pp. 317-327, 1995.  Induction of hepatic ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase (EROD) activity and accumulation of chlorophenolic compounds typical of bleached-kraft mill effluent (BKME) in fish sampled downstream of a pulp mill on the St. Maurice River, Quebec, Canada, provided evidence of chemical exposure to BKME. In comparison, fish sampled over the same distances and in similar habitats in a noncontaminated reference river, the Gatineau River, demonstrated low EROD activity and contamination levels. Accelerated growth of white suckers occurred between 2 and 10 years of age in both rivers at downstream stations relative to upstream stations, suggesting the existence of gradients of nutrient enrichment independent of BKME contamination. The impact of BKME exposure was expressed as reduced investment in reproduction, as revealed by greaterlength at maturity, reduced gonad size, and more variable fecundity. These effects were not obvious in simple upstream-downstream comparisons, but became evident when fish from the uncontaminated Gatineau River showed increased gonadal development and reduced age and size at maturity in response to enhanced growth rates.
#|Gagnon, M M ; Dodson, J J ; Hodson, P V ; Van Der Kraak, G ; Carey, J H.  Seasonal effects of bleached kraft mill effluent on reproductive parameters of white sucker (Catostomus commersoni) populations of the St. Maurice River, Quebec, Canada.  CANADIAN JOURNAL OF FISHERIES AND AQUATIC SCIENCES vol. 51, no. 2, pp. 337-347, 1994.  Reproductive parameters and accumulation of chlorophenolic compounds by white sucker (Catostomus commersoni) populations exposed to bleached kraft mill effluent (BKME) were studied in the St. Maurice River, Quebec. Compared with unexposed populations from the same waterway, exposed white sucker showed obvious effects of chemical exposure as far as 100 km downstream of the mill, as revealed by a strong induction of ethoxyresorufin O-deethylase (EROD) activity. In males, circulating plasma testosterone levels were the same at all sites, while 11-ketotestosterone levels were significantly lower at exposed stations. In females, testosterone and 17 beta -estradiol levels were significantly reduced at the two exposed stations relative to the reference station. Despite different hormone levels during sexual maturation, gonad weight as a proportion of carcass weight was similar at all sites for both sexes during early gonadal development.  The relationship between carcass weight and fecundity was more variable at the station immediately downstream of the mill. Biochemical and physiological parameters measured in this study do not allow us toclearly relate perturbations in plasma steroid levels to impaired reproduction as measured by gonad weight and fecundity.
#|Gallagher,-L.M.; Miller,-L.A. TI:  Clean water handbook, 2nd edition. ROCKVILLE, MD. GOVERNMENT INSTITUTES, 1996. 452 pp. The completely updated 2nd Edition provides a comprehensive roadmap to the latest requirements, legal theories, and critical issues of water pollution control law. The handbook covers a wide range of programs and requirements that have developed over the years through statutory changes, regulatory enactments, and court decisions. Chapters include: The NPDES Permit Program; Effluent Limitations; Whole Effluent Toxicity Control; The Pretreatment Program; Storm Water and Nonpoint Source Discharges; Preventing, Reporting, and Responding to Spills; Dredge and Fill Permits; and Enforcement.
#|Galvez F, Hogstrand C, Wood M.  Physiological responses of juvenile rainbow trout to chronic low level exposures of waterborne silver.  COMPARATIVE BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY C-PHARMACOLOGY TOXICOLOGY & ENDOCRINOLOGY 119: (2) 131-137 FEB 1998.  The physiological effects of chronic exposure to AgNO3 in moderately hard freshwater were investigated in juvenile rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss Walbaum). Two separate 28-day exposures were performed at silver concentrations of 0.5 and 2.0 mu g/L in flowing Hamilton dechlorinated tap water. Exposure to 0.5 mu g/L Ag resulted in a slight increase (similar to 14.9%) in food consumption, whereas growth rates remained unaltered. Both plasma Na+ and Cl- levels were significantly decreased by 11.8% and 9.3%, respectively at day 16 of the exposure. Hepatic Ag concentrations were elevated approximately 4-fold in 0.5 mu g/L Ag-exposed fish. However, no significant increases in liver metallothionein (MT) concentrations were noted. No mortalities were observed during this 28-day exposure. In comparison, chronic exposure to 2.0 mu g/L Ag resulted in a 28.8% decrease in food consumption and a 43.0% reduction in growth rate. Plasma [Na+] was decreased by 18.3%, whereas plasma [Cl-] was reduced by 12.2% at day 7. At both concentrations of silver, plasma ion concentrations appeared to recover thereafter. Silver accumulated steadily in the liver up until day 15 when concentrations were 39.7 mu g/g wet weight (285-fold increase) above control levels. In addition, MT levels were increased by 81.2% at day 7.  Silver exposure at 2.0 mu g/L resulted in approximately 15.0% mortality over the 28-day period.
#|Galvez F, Wood CM.  The relative importance of water hardness and chloride levels in modifying the acute toxicity of silver to rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss).  ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY 16: (11) 2363-2368 NOV 1997.  Static-renewal 7-d toxicity tests for silver nitrate (AgNO3) were performed with juvenile rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss Walbaum). The relative influences of calcium and chloride concentrations on median lethal time (LT50) were assessed. Calcium concentrations were controlled by adding either Ca(NO3)(2) or CaSO4, whereas chloride concentrations were adjusted with either NaCl or KCI. For both calcium salts, a 100-fold elevation in concentration increased the LT50 approximately IO-fold. However, a 100-fold elevation in KCl ameliorated silver (Ag) toxicity at least 100-fold, while NaCl protected against Ag toxicity even more substantially, demonstrating the much greater protective effect of chloride relative to calcium. In a separate series of bioassays, fish were exposed to 0.92 mu M Ag (100 mu g/L as AgNO4) with varying amounts of NaCl titrated into each tank to alter the free [Ag+]. The 7-d LC50 occurred at a [NaCl] of 2,500 mu M.  Using MINEQL(+) (a geochemical speciation program), the predicted free [Ag+] at this LC50 value is 0.0285 mu M. Further bioassays were performed in which [chloride] was maintained at either 50 or 225 mu M, while total [Ag] was independently varied from 0.0092 to 0.0694 mu M (1.0-7.5 mu g/L). The 7-d LC50 value was calculated at 0.0294 mu M Ag (3.18 mu g/L) at a chloride concentration of 50 mu M, very similar to the free [Ag+] value of 0.031 mu M calculated from an earlier LC50 test at a fixed [chloride] of 730 mu M. According to MINEQL(+), the estimated [Ag+] at this LC50 value is 0.0289 mu M. Although a 7-d LC50 value could not be determined at 225 mu M chloride, it was estimated at slightly above 0.0277 mu M Ag+. Elevating chloride concentrations from 50 to 225 mu M did not alter the accumulation of Ag in the liver In addition, there were no significant differences in hepatic Ag accumulation between any of the Ag-exposed fish, irrespective of the total Ag concentration used during the exposure. Overall, Ag accumulated to approximately 185 mu mol/kg wet weight in all Ag-exposed groups (approximately a 10-fold increase above controls). These results, together with a reanalysis of published data, suggest that Ag toxicity can be correlated with the free AE ion [Ag+], and that any factors altering Ag+ availability (i.e., chloride) will be expected to modify acute Ag toxicity.
#|Galvez, F ; Hogstrand, C ; McGeer, J ; Bureau, D ; Wood, C M.  The physiological effects of dietary silver exposure in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss).  Andren, A W ; Bober, T W  (eds).  REPORT NUMBER: WISCU-W-96-001.  pp. 165-174, 1996.  Int. Conf. Transport, Fate and Effects of Silver in the Environment.  Madison, WI (USA), 1996 Aug 25-28.  Previous studies performed on adult rainbow trout have suggested that the toxic mechanism of acute waterborne Ag exposure (as AgNO sub(3) in moderately hard freshwater) involves a severe branchial ionoregulatory disturbance (Morgan et al, 1996 Wood et al, 1996a) resulting in a sharp decline of both plasma [Na super(+)] and [Cl super(-)]. It is further proposed that death may ensue due to circulatory collapse, as a result of ionoregulatory-induced hemoconcentration. However, probably of more environmental importance (at least in freshwater fish) is that Ag levels were found to be significantly elevated in tissues such as the liver, following acute exposure (Hogstrand et al, 1996 Wood et al, 1996b). At Argentum III (Washington, D.C., August 5-9, 1995) concern was raised of the implications of Ag transfer along the food chain. Despite our current knowledge of the toxic mechanisms of acute exposure of waterborne Ag, little is known concerning the effects of dietary silver exposure in aquatic animals. The primary objective of this study was to investigate the physiological effects of food chain transfer of biologically incorporated silver.
#|GAO JL, & XIA XF. (1994).  SIMULATING SOLVENT EFFECTS ON REACTIVITY AND INTERACTIONS IN AMBIENT AND SUPERCRITICAL WATER.  ACS SYMPOSIUM SERIES, V568, P212-228. The effects of hydration on the rate acceleration of the Claisen rearrangement of allyl vinyl ether and the Menshutkin reaction of ammonia and methyl chloride were investigated by a hybrid quantum mechanical and classical Monte Carlo simulation method. In addition, the potentials of mean force for the ion pair Na+Cl- in ambient and supercritical water were determined. The results provided valuable insights on intermolecular interactions for these processes in solution.
#|Garric, J ; Vindimian, E ; Ferard, J F.  Ecotoxicology and wastewater: Some practical applications.  PROCEEDINGS OF THE SECOND EUROPEAN CONFERENCE ON ECOTOXICOLOGY.  Sloof, W ; de Kruijf, H  (eds ).  SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT vol. Suppl. Pts. 1-2 pp. 1085-1103.  1993.  2. European Conf. on Ecotoxicology.  Amsterdam (Netherlands), 1992 May 11-15.  This paper summarizes the information obtained from an international survey dealing with the use of chronic bioassays for the control of wastewaters. The results indicated that several relevant, sensitive and cost-effective laboratory chronic tests are available using different freshwater and marine species: fish, crustaceans, molluscs and algae. These tests are implemented in several countries for the control of effluents. The use of toxicological endpoints is an essential complementary step to permit and to control wastewater discharges. From some results of toxicity tests available, Ceriodaphnia reproduction tests in a stepwise approach seem to generate the most useful information.
#|Garric, J ; Volat, B ; Nguyen, D K ; Bray, M ; Migeon, B ; Kosmala, A.  Ecotoxicological and chemical characterization of municipal wastewater treatment plant effluents.  HAZARD ASSESSMENT AND CONTROL OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINANTS IN WATER.  Nyholm, N ; Jacobsen, B N  (eds ).  WATER SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY vol. 33, no. 6 pp. 83-91, 1996.  The toxicity and the chemical quality of three municipal wastewater effluents have been studied. Acute and sub-chronic bioassays were carried out. We also measured the induction of the hepatic ethoxy resorufin-O-deethylase enzymatic activity (EROD) of fish exposed to the effluents. Chemical analysis allowed to identify the most frequent substances detected in the effluents. From chemical data and results of bioassays we conclude that ammonia concentration explains a part of the lethal toxicity. But chronic toxicity tests carried out with whole effluents or extracted chemical fractions showed that organic pollutants detected in the effluents could also cause long-term effect.  All the tested effluents induced fish EROD activity. The instream invertebrates monitoring confirmed the municipal wastewater treatment plant impact on the receiving water.
#|Gaudet, C. E., Lingard, S., Cureton, P., Keenleyside, K., Smith, S., & Raju, G.  1995.  Canadian Environmental Quality Guidelines for Mercury.  Water Air Soil Pollut v80, n1-4, p1149(11). The Canadian Environmental Quality Guidelines, which are based on a published national protocol that ensures consistent decision-making and quality of scientific data, provide an important framework for protecting aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. The current derivation procedures for Canadian Water Quality Guidelines, Soil Quality Criteria, and Sediment Quality Guidelines are outlined, and proposed guidelines for mercury are presented. For each of the guidelines, the methods are described, and results are presented for Hg.
#|Gauthier, L.; Van der Gaag, M. A.; L'Haridon, J.; Ferrier, V.; Fernandez, M.  Comparison of Ecotoxicological and Physico-Chemical Data by Use of Multivariate Analyses and Graphical Displays.  Chemosphere  v28, n12, p2249(19) Jun 94.  A macroinvertebrate multi-test assay based on species representative of different trophic levels was designed to examine the ecotoxicological impact of effluents and chemicals in aquatic systems. Multivariate analyses and graphical displays of raw data were applied tocompare the sensitivity of selected macroinvertebrates among themselves andin relation to those in three standard bioassays. These techniques were also used to rank effluents according to their toxicity and physicochemical composition. Their utility in interpretation of toxicology results was demonstrated.
#|Gauthier, L.; Van der Gaag, M. A.; L'Haridon, J.; Ferrier, V.; Fernandez, M. In Vivo Detection of Waste Water and Industrial Effluent Genotoxicity: Use of the Newt Micronucleus Test (Jaylet Test).  Sci Total Environ  v138, n1-3, p249(21) Sep 30, 93.  Aquatic larvae of the pleurodele newt, Pleurodeles waltl, were exposed to various types of industrial wastewater to examine the ability of the Newt Micronucleus Test (Jaylet Test) to reveal the genotoxic potency of polluted waters. Water samples included the River Dadou in France, an effluent from an oil-refinery site, and and effluent from a petrochemical industrial complex. The general principle of the Jaylet Test is described.  The results of the in vivo test showed that it was very effective in determining the genotoxicity of each water and wastewater sample evaluated.
#|Gauthier, L.; Van der Gaag, M. A.; L'Haridon, J.; Ferrier, V.; Fernandez, M. Comparison of Artemia Feeding Regimens on Larval Growth in a Short-Term Fathead Minnow Toxicity Test.  Bull Environ Contam Toxicol  v50, n2, p179(8) Feb 93.  Fathead minnow larvae are used to monitor the toxicity of wastewater effluents for compliance with EPA standards. The standard ration consists of 700-1000 shrimp/0.1 ml fed to a tank of 10 minnow larvae at a rate of 0.1 ml or 0.15 ml three or two times daily, respectively. Control minnows must average at least 0.25 mg/fish dry weight at the end of the test, and mortality must be </=20%. In this study, the feeding schedule and ration were varied to see whether growth could be optimized without overfeeding. In one study, fish were fed one to four times daily with 0.1, 0.3, 0.6, or 0.9 ml of the standard ration. Mean growth was not affected by feeding frequency or ration. When fish were fed at a rate of 0-1240 shrimp one to three times daily, growth was related to both the number of shrimp fed, and the feeding schedule. Growth in the groups fed two or three times per day was statistically similar. Therefore, a regimen of feeding twice daily was recommended.
#|GbonoTugbawa S; Driscoll CT.  Application of the Regional Mercury Cycling Model (RMCM) to predict the fate and remediation of mercury in Onondaga Lake, New York.  WATER AIR AND SOIL POLLUTION, 1998, V105, N1-2 (JUL), P417-426.  Onondaga Lake exhibits elevated concentrations of total mercury (Hg-T) and methyl-mercury (MeHg) in the water column, sediments and fish tissue due to industrial inputs, wastewater discharge and urban runoff. The steady-state Regional Mercury Cycling Model (RMCM) was calibrated to Onondaga Lake and applied to evaluate various remediation scenarios. Because of detailed data available for Onondaga Lake, the RMCM was effectively calibrated. Model predictions of water column and fish concentrations of Hg generally agreed with measured values. The model underestimated concentrations of Hg in sediments. Mass balance calculations show that inputs of Hg-T largely originate from tributary and wastewater inflows to the lake. In contrast, MeHg is largely derived from internal production. Model calculations suggest that elimination of Hg inputs from wastewater effluent and of drainage from a former chlor-alk alifacility could greatly decrease Hg concentrations in fish tissue.
#|GELDREICH EE.  PATHOGENIC AGENTS IN FRESHWATER RESOURCES.HYDROLOGICAL PROCESSES, 1996, V10, N2 (FEB), P315-333.  Numerous pathogenic agents have been found in freshwaters used as sources for water supplies, recreational bathing and irrigation. These agents include bacterial pathogens, enteric viruses, several protozoans and parasitic worms more common to tropical waters. Although infected humans are a major source of pathogens, farm animals (cattle, sheep, pigs), animal pets (dogs, cats) and wildlife serve as significant reservoirs and should not be ignored. The range of infected individuals within a given warm-blooded animal group (humans included) may range from 1 to 25%. Survival times for pathogens in the water environment may range from a few days to as much as a year (Ascaris, Taenia eggs), with infective dose levels varying from one viable cell for several primary pathogenic agents to many thousands of cells for a given opportunistic pathogen. As pathogen detection in water is complex and not readily incorporated into routine monitoring, a surrogate is necessary. In general, indicators of faecal contamination provide a positive correlation with intestinal pathogen occurrences only when appropriate sample volumes are examined by sensitive methodology. Pathways by which pathogens reach susceptible water users include ingestion of contaminated water, body contact with polluted recreational waters and consumption of salad crops irrigated by polluted freshwaters. Major contributors to the spread of various water-borne pathogens are sewage, polluted surface waters and stormwater runoff. All of these contributions are intensified during periods of major floods. Several water-borne case histories are cited as examples of breakdowns in public health protection related to water supply, recreational waters and the consumption of contaminated salad crops. In the long term, water resource management must focus on pollution prevention from point sources of waste discharges and the spread of pathogens in watershed stormwater runoff.
#|Genereux,-D.-P.; Hemond,-H.-F.; Mulholland,-P.-J.  Spatial and Temporal Variability in Streamflow Generation on the West Fork of Walker Branch Watershed. Journal of Hydrology JHYDA7, Vol. 142, No. 1/4, p 137-166, February 1993.  Spatially-intensive measurements of streamflow were used to document the spatial and temporal variability in streamflow generation on the West Fork of Walker Branch Watershed, a 38.4-ha forested catchment in Oak Ridge, Tennessee. The study focused on a 300-m section of a small stream, and covered a wide range of flow conditions (streamflow at the weir, i.e. at the basin outlet, varied from about 350 to 3500 L/min). There was enormous spatial variability in the stream inflow, down to the finest scale investigated (reaches 20 m in length). Lateral inflow to longer reaches (60-130 m) was linearly correlated with the streamflow at the weir over the full range of flows studied, making it possible to estimate the spatial pattern of stream inflow from measurement of streamflow at the weir alone. The heterogeneous nature of the karstic dolomite bedrock was the dominant control on the observed spatial variability in streamflow generation. This thesis is consistent with the results of field investigations using natural tracers. Bedrock structure and lithology may affect streamflow generation directly (via water movement through fractured rock), and indirectly (by influencing the slope and thickness of the overlying soil). While the West Fork contains all the topographic and surface hydrologic features of larger basins (ridge tops, valleys, hollows, spurs, ephemeral and perennial stream channels), it covers an area which is relatively small with respect to the bedrock heterogeneity. Therefore, while the hydrologic processes observed on the West Fork are no doubt typical of those occurring elsewhere in karst terrain, the particular patterns of spatial and temporal variability observed are somewhat specific to the study site.
#|Gerhardt A(a); Carlsson A; Ressemann C; Stich K P.  New online biomonitoring system for Gammarus pulex (L.) (Crustacea): In situ test below a copper effluent in south Sweden.  Environmental Science & Technology  32 (1):p150-156 Jan., 1998. Online biomonitors register biological effects of toxic discharges on selected indicator species and allow for fast, continuous, and ecological relevant water quality control. This paper presents a new online biomonitor based on a quadropole impedance conversion technique that records simultaneously several behavioral parameters of Gammarus pulex, a new biomonitoring test species. The behavior of two different populations of G. pulex was compared; one population originated from an anthropogenically unpolluted stream, and the other population lived at the copper-polluted study site, where the biomonitor was placed. Responses to simulated copper pollution peaks of 70 mug of Cu2+/L were registered in the biomonitor and compared to the natural drift. G. pulex was the most abundant species in the natural drift. A nocturnal drift maximum was found in the natural drift and for both populations in the biomonitor. Mortality was high in the biomonitor, the local population survived slightly better than the reference population. The reference population showed significantly less activity than the local population measured as number of active organisms per day and time spent on locomotion and ventilation. Copper pollution pulses provoked increases in number of active organisms and time spent on locomotion in the biomonitor; however, no significant changes in the natural drift were registered.
#|Gerhardt A. Whole effluent toxicity testing with Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum 1792): Survival and behavioral responses to a dilution series of a miningeffluent in South Africa. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology  35 (2):p 309-316 Aug., 1998.  Survival, behavioral early warning responses to, and behavioral effects of a complex effluent from Richards Bay Minerals in Natal, South Africa, were studied using rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum 1792) as a biosensor. Three replicates of eight juvenile fish were exposed to a dilution series of the effluent (0, 5, 10, 20, 50, 75, 100%) and the behavioral pattern (ventilation, locomotion) was measured online with quadropole impedance conversion. Survival decreased with increasing effluent concentration. Before death, O. mykiss coloration darkened, demonstrating skewed bodies subsequently after death. Decreased activity and increased ventilation combined with increased ventilation frequency were found within the first 2 h of exposure at gtoreq96-h LC50 value of 10% effluent concentration indicating early warning responses. During 4 days of exposure, activity decreased and ventilation increased further at concentrations around the 96-h LC50 value indicating toxic effects.
#|Gernaey Krist; Verschuere Laurent; Luyten Leen; Verstraete Willy.  Fast and sensitive acute toxicity detection with an enrichment nitrifying culture.  Water Environment Research  69 (6):p1163-1169 1997.  Current stringent effluent discharge limits for nitrogen and the high sensitivity of nitrifying bacteria to inhibition by toxic compounds encourage the development of methods for acute nitrification toxicity screening of wastewater. For this purpose, a rapid (response time of 14 minutes) and simple respirometric procedure using an enrichment nitrifying culture is presented. Allyl thiourea was used as a selective nitrification inhibitor. The concentration of a toxic compound causing a 50% decrease of nitrifying activity compared to the nontoxic reference measurement with tap water (EC-50) was determined for different reference chemicals. The (EC-50) values obtained with the nitrifying culture (0.51 mg/L for 3,5-dichlorophenol, 2.67 mg/L for phenol, 0.078 mg/L for CN-, 173 mg/L for Cu++, and 8.3 mg/L for Cd++) revealed that the method described combined a high sensitivity with acceptable repeatability.  Because of its simplicity and short response time, the proposed procedure seems suitable for on-line acute nitrification toxicity detection at wastewater treatment plants.
#|Gilbertson, M. Advances in forensic toxicology for establishing causality between Great Lakes epizootics and specific persistent toxic chemicals.  ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY vol. 16, no. 9, pp. 1771-1778, 1997.  Populations of fish, wildlife, and humans in the Great Lakes basin have been injured during this century by exposures to organochlorine pollutants. The evidence presented by scientists working on these outbreaks of chemically induced disease has been received with scepticism among officials, who have expressed a desire for a "proven" cause and effect before further costly regulatory and remedial action is taken. Scientists have adapted epidemiological criteria to infer causal relationships between the injury and exposures to specific chemicals. These forensic statements are different from traditional toxicological statements about potential effects. There is a priority need to institutionalize this methodology within governments to complement established risk assessment techniques.
#|Glass,-P.W.; Jordan,-B.L.; Mancini,-J.L.; Mathews,-J.  WET testing faces diazinon dilemma.  WATER-ENVIRON.-TECHNOL. 1995  vol. 7, no. 6, pp. 29-30. Approximately 30% of the publicly owned treatment works in EPA Region 6 that are conducting toxicity reduction evaluations (TREs) have identified diazinon, a widely used pesticide, as the primary cause of whole effluent toxicity (WET) test failures. Diazinon concentrations as low as 0.12 mu g/L are toxic to the commonly used biomonitoring test organism, Ceriodaphnia dubia. The diazinon dilemma is one example of the problems that wastewater treatment plant operators are having with WET requirements. In many cases, there is not a single cause of the test failures. Rather, failures result from random occurrences (spills, illicit or inadvertent discharges, modifications or disruption in plant operations). In most cases, it is impossible for a city to ensure that a substance that may cause a test failure is never introduced to the sewer system. Municipal wastewater treatment plants cannot be designed to treat every substance that can cause a test failure.
#|Glenn, M.K. The interplay between permits, self-audits, and statutes of limitations.  J. ENVIRON. PERMITTING  VOL. 4, NO. 1, pp. 37-47, 1994-1995.  EPA appears to be developing a new theory to support civil penalty claims that "first accrued" more than five years before a penalty proceeding was/is commenced by the government. It results from 3M v. Browner, in which the D.C. Circuit rejected an EPA-proposed "discovery of violation" rule for starting the five-year statute of limitations period, and from the Justice Department's recent decision not to seek Supreme Court review. So EPA is postulating a new "continuing violation" concept for civil penalty claims, which would have the five-year period not start running until a violation is corrected (presumably even later than when it is discovered!). EPA has said that the five-year period does not start running, for example, until the sale of an illegally imported chemical is stopped, until a facility operating without a required wastewater discharge permit stops discharging or obtains a permit, or until an unauthorized release or spill is cleaned up.  In effect, EPA is interpreting the word "first" to mean "last"! Or, when the relevant law only provides that penalties may be assessed for each day that a one-act violation "continues," EPA is interpreting this to mean that each day the violation persists also can be treated as a "separate" or new violation for statute of limitations purposes as well. This article examines the issue of "continuing violations" in relation to federal civil penalty claims and how that issue may affect certain permit compliance and self-audit activities.
#|Gorsuch JW. Klaine SJ.  TOXICITY AND FATE OF SILVER IN THE ENVIRONMENT.  Environmental Toxicology & Chemistry. 17(4):537-538, 1998 Apr.
#|Gossett, L B. Section 401 water quality certification in federal permitting.  Environ. Regul. Permitting vol. 7, no. 4, pp. 81-89, 1998.  Section 401 of the Clean Water Act requires that any applicant for a federal license or permit for any activity that "may result in a discharge into navigable water" shall provide the federal agency with"a certification from the State" that the discharge will comply with various requirements, including state water quality standards. The states vary in their implementation of Section 401. This article provides an overview of the certification requirements in Section 401, the scope of activities to which it applies, the implementation procedures adopted by some states and agencies, and the case law applying or interpreting Section 401.
#|Goudey-J.S.  Aquatic Toxicity Workshop: Proceedings 1996. Canadian technical report of fisheries and aquatic sciences no. no. 2144. Annual publication.  1997. 212p. These annual workshops for personnel from industry, governments & universities cover topics from basic aquatic toxicology to applications in environmental monitoring, setting of regulations & guidelines, and the development of sediment & water quality criteria. Topics include these: Toxicity testing for gas plant decommissioning; fate assessment of contaminants in groundwater (regulatory issues); ecological risk assessment in the petroleum industry; oil sands; mining; Arctic contamination; environmental toxicology; ecological endpoints; new developments in toxicity test & risk assessment methods; sediment testing; soil ecotoxicology; toxicity identification & evaluation; regulatory harmonization; pulp & paper environmental effects monitoring; & pulp & paper mill effluent tracers in fish. As well as papers or abstracts, poster presentations are described.
#|Goudreau, S.E.; Neves, R.J.; Sheehan, R.J.  Effects of wastewater treatment plant effluents on freshwater mollusks in the upper Clinch River, Virginia, USA.  HYDROBIOLOGIA  VOL. 252, NO. 3, pp. 211-230, 1993.  Field and laboratory studies were conducted to determine mollusk distributions in proximity to wastewater treatment plants (WTP's) in the upper Clinch River and to test the tolerance of two mollusk species to monochloramine and unionized ammonia, the major toxicants in domestic effluent.  River reaches up to 3.7 km downstream of WTP's were devoid of freshwater mussels (Unionidae), and tolerance to effluents varied among snails, sphaeriid clams, and the Asian clam Corbicula fluminea.  Residential communities with septic systems had no measurable impact on mollusk assemblages downstream.  Laboratory bioassays with glochidia of Villosa iris yielded the following results: 24 h EC sub(50) and LC sub(50) values of 0.042 mg/l and 0.084 mg/l monochloramine, respectively; and 24 h EC sub(50) and LC sub(50) of 0.237 mg/l and 0.284 mg/l unionized ammonia, respectively.  Glochidia rank among the most sensitive invertebrates in their tolerance to these toxicants. The snail Pleurocera unciale unciale was moderately sensitive, with 96 h LC sub(50) values of 0.252 mg/l monochloramine and 0.742 mg/l unionized ammonia.  Monitoring of monochloramine and unionized ammonia concentrations 0.1 km below WTP outfalls indicated that monochloramine was the toxicant likely inhibiting mollusk recovery below these plants.
#|Goulder, R.; Carr, O. J.  Pollution from Fish Farms.  Univ Coll of Wales/et al Pollut in Livestock Prod Syst Symp, Bangor, UK (CAB Int)  p205(21) 1994.  Water pollution caused by a small trout farm facility in northeast England and a large trout farm on the River Hull, UK, was studied. At the small farm, water samples were taken at the farm inlet and outflow to a calcareous stream and analyzed for phosphorus (P), inorganic nitrogen (), turbidity, phosphatase activity, and standard water quality parameters. The farm uses a settling lagoon for effluent treatment, but performance is poor. Soluble inorganic and organic P, particulate P, ammonia N, turbidity, and bacterial abundance all increased at the outlet.  Fish feed was the main source of P. At the large trout farm, total bacteria and bacterial metabolism increased downstream, as did inorganic and organic P and phosphatase activity. Enhanced growth of periphytic algae and growth of aquatic macrophytes also was observed.
#|Graca, M. A. S.; Coimbra, C. N.  The elaboration of indices to assess biological water quality. A case study.  Water Research (Oxford)  vol. 32 (2):  p.380-392, 1998.  The application of a nodal analysis for the elaboration of biotic indices for polluting conditions was tested in an intermittent Mediterranean stream where superficial flow was absent during summer. The river was perturbed by an effluent with high pH, sulfates, nitrates and conductivity.  'Summer' and 'winter' samples were treated separately.  Groups of sites differing in taxonomical composition were identified by cluster analysis. The groups of sites were then tested for differences in their abiotic characteristics.  Groups of co-occurring taxa were also identified by cluster analysis. The indicator value of a taxa group was measured by fidelity measurements for site groups. Indicator taxa were incorporated in a water quality table.  The biotic index in the water quality table clearly distinguished impacted from reference sites in the two following years and was correlated with the first axis of a correspondence analysis biplot which also discriminated impacted from clean sites.  Nodal analysis can be a reliable technique for the identification of bioindicators and the elaboration of biotic indices.
#|Granberg, K.  The impact of effluents of Pitkaeranta pulp mill on the water quality of Lake Ladoga: A model study.  PROCEEDINGS OF THE FIRST INTERNATIONAL LAKE LADOGA SYMPOSIUM: ECOLOGICAL PROBLEMS OF LAKE LADOGA HELD IN ST. PETERSBURG, RUSSIA, 22-26 NOVEMBER 1993.  Simola, H ; Viljanen, M ; Slepukhina, T ; Murthy, R  (eds ). HYDROBIOLOGIA vol. 322, no. 1-3 pp. 159-166, 1996.  The aim of this study is to show the effects of the Pitkaeranta pulp mill on the water quality of Northern Ladoga by using water quality models. The effluent loading of the pulp mill with its full production capacity is as follows: Water flow: 85 000 m super(3)/d, BOD sub(5): 2.4 t/d, Suspended solids: 4.1 t/d, tot-N: 330 kg/d, tot-P: 68 kg/d, COD(Cr): 14.4 t/d, Org. C: 6 t/d, Lignosulphonates: 9.4 t/d. Loadings of lignosulphonates and organic C are estimations. Lignosulphonate concentrations of 10.5 mg l super(-1) have been reported in the region of Pitkaeranta. The study area of northern Ladoga near the pulp mill was divided into three zones (I, II and III). The mean depth of each of them is considered as 10 m, their respective areas 5, 10 and 50 km super(2), and volumes 50, 100 and 500 million m super(3). The estimated discharges of the zones are 10, 20 and 50 m super(3)/s, respectively. With the aid of simple water quality models the effects of the pulp mill effluents on the concentrations of oxygen, total phosphorus, lignin, COD(Mn) and Secchi disk depths in each of the zones were estimated. Estimations were made during full production capacity and half production capacity of the pulp mill. The modelling results were compared with the preliminary water analysis results of the Finnish-Russian joint research expedition into Lake Ladoga in August 1993. The results show that near the pulp mill (zone I) phosphorus concentrations are high even with half production capacity.  Also lignin and COD(Mn) contents have increased, and oxygen concentrations are low both in the summer and during wintertime. Farther away in the open water (zone III) the pollution effects are low. Eutrophication, indicated by high total phosphorus concentrations, is the main effect of the pulp mill effluents.
#|Grassi, M. T., Shi, B., & Allen, H. E.  (1997).  Sorption of copper by suspended particulate matter.  Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects v 120 n 1-3, p 199-203. The sorption of copper by suspended particulate matter from river water was investigated as a function of pH and solids concentration. Water was collected from the Delaware River and particulate matter was concentrated using Tangential-Flow Filtration (TFF). The adsorption of copper increased with increasing pH until pH 9.0. A decrease in copper adsorption was found for higher pH values. The adsorption of copper was greater for the samples with added copper than for the suspension for which no metal was added. An increase of copper adsorption proportional to particulate matter concentration was also observed. At both pH 6.0 and 7.0, there was a decrease in the adsorption of copper with increasing copper concentration.
#|Grasso, D. N., Jennings, M. E., & Sadler, W. J.  (1995).  Field screening of water quality, bottom sediment, and biota associated with irrigation drainage, Wind River Indian Reservation, Wyoming, 1992-93.  Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects v 120 n 1-3, Feb 21 1997,  p 199-203. USGS Open File Report: 95-121.  Physical, chemical, and biological data were collected in 1992-93 from irrigation drainage areas and wetlands of the Wind River Federal Irrigation Project, Wind River Indian Reservation, Wyoming. Most samples collected had concentrations of chemical constituents less than the established levels of concern for water, bottom sediment, and biota. In the Little Wind Unit irrigation area, however, selenium and mercury concentrations in water exceeded criteria established by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Six water samples analyzed from the Little Wind Unit in 1993 had selenium concentrations that equaled or exceeded 5 micrograms per liter. Concentrations of mercury in water were 0.1 micrograms per liter or less, except at four sites: one sample collected in 1993 from Sharp Nose Draw (4.9 micrograms per liter) and three samples collected in 1992 from Little Wind Unit and Johnstown Unit (0.2 micrograms per liter). Mercury concentrations in all bottom-sediment samples were less than 0.02 micrograms per liter, except at Sharp Nose Pond where a concentration of 0.02 micrograms per liter was measured. Selenium concentrations in some aquatic vegetation, invertebrates, fish, bird eggs, and bird livers collected from the Little Wind Unit in 1993 exceeded established levels of concern. At Goose Pond and Sharp Nose Pond, selenium in the livers of five bird samples collected exceeded the 10 micrograms per gram level associated with reproductive failure in aquatic birds. Mercury concentrations in the livers of birds sampled at Sharp Nose Pond also were greater than suggested levels in dietary items for the protection of sensitive species of mammals and birds that regularly consume aquatic organisms.
#|Gray, R.H. Multimedia environmental monitoring: 50 Years at Hanford.  ENVIRON. MONIT. ASSESS.  vol. 26, no. 2-3, pp. 263-276  (1993) Workshop on Improving Natural Resource Management Through Monitoring , Corvallis, OR (USA) , 1992 Mar 10-11.  Environmental monitoring has been an ongoing activity on the U.S. Department of Energy's Hanford Site in southeastern Washington for almost 50 years. Objectives are to detect and assess potential impacts of Site operations on air, surface and ground waters, foodstuffs, fish, wildlife, soil and vegetation. Data from monitoring effects are used to calculate the overall radiological dose to humans working onsite or residing in nearbycommunities. In 1989, measured Hanford Site perimeter concentrations of airborne radionuclides were below applicable guidelines. Concentrations of radionuclides and nonradiological water quality in the Columbia River were in compliance with applicable standards. Foodstuffs irrigated with river water taken downstream of the Site showed radionuclide levels that were similar to those found in foodstuffs from control areas. Low levels of super(137)Cs and super(90)Sr in most onsite wildlife samples and concentrations of radionuclides in soils and vegetation from on- and offsite locations were typical of those attributable to worldwide fallout. The calculated dose potentially received by a maximally exposed individual (i.e., based on hypothetical, worst-case assumptions for all routes of exposure) in 1989 (0.05 mrem/yr) was similar to those calculated for 1985 through 1988. In addition to monitoring radioactivity in fish and wildlife, population numbers of key species are determined. Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) spawning in the Columbia River at Hanford has increased in recent years with a concomitant increase in winter roosting activity of bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus). An elk (Cervus elaphus) herd, established by immigration in 1972, is also increasing. The Hanford Site currently serves as a refuge for Canada goose (Branta canadensis), great blue heron (Ardea herodias), and various plants and other animals, e.g., mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus), and coyotes (Canis latrans).
#|Green, Bartholomew W; Boyd, Claude E. Chemical budgets for organically fertilized fish ponds in the dry tropics. Journal of the World Aquaculture Society  26 (3):p284-296 1995.  Chemical budgets were determined for nitrogen, phosphorus, dissolved oxygen and chemical oxygen demand for three 0.1-ha earthen ponds stocked with Oreochromis niloticus at the El Carao National Fish Culture Research Center, Comayagua, Honduras, for two 150-d culture periods, corresponding to the rainy and dry seasons. Layer chicken litter was added to ponds weekly at 500 kg dry matter/ha. Concentrations of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and chemical oxygen demand (COD) in pond water increased during each season. No significant seasonal differences in concentrations of water quality variables were observed. Chicken litter added to ponds represented 9294% of N input, 93-95% of P input, and 43-52% of COD input. Photosynthesis by phytoplankton provided 47-56% of COD and 98% of dissolved oxygen (DO) added to ponds. Net inward diffusion of oxygen added 1.2-1.5% of total DO. Regulated inflow was a minor source of nutrients, and contributed 3-4% of input N, 3-4% of input P, 1% of COD input, and 1% of DO input. Nutrient inputs from rain were ltoreq 1% of total for each nutrient. Fish harvest accounted for 18-21% of total N, 16-18% of total P and 2% of COD added to ponds. Community respiration accounted for 4857% of COD and 99.5% of DO added to ponds. Nutrient losses in pond effluent at draining were: 7-9% of total N, 29-37% of total P and 2-3% of COD. While measured gains exceeded measured losses, significantly greater N, P and organic matter concentrations in pre-drain samples indicated pond mud was a major sink for added nutrients; accumulation in mud represented 70% of total N, 35-40% of total P, and 38-46% of COD.
#|Griffith-G.E.; Omernik-J.M.; Wilton-T.F.; Pierson-S.M. Ecoregions and Subregions of Iowa: A Framework for Water Quality Assessment and Management. PB95137287XSP.  Corvallis Environmental Research Lab., OR., ManTech Environmental Technology, Inc., Corvallis, OR., Iowa Dept. of Natural Resources, Des Moines. Environmental Protection Commission. 1994. 11p. Jnl. of the Iowa Academy of Sciences 101, n1 p5-13 Ecoregion frameworks are valuable tools for inventorying and assessing environmental resources, for setting resource management goals, and for developing biological criteria and water quality standards. In a collaborative project between the Iowa Dept. of Natural Resources (DNR) and the the EPA's three major ecological regions of Iowa and defined six subregions of the Western Corn Belt Plains ecoregion within the state. Lists of candidate stream reference sites have been developed for seven regions, and the sites were visited and evaluated by Iowa DNR and U.S. EPA personnel to determine their suitability for sampling. The Iowa DNR plans to use the ecoregions and reference sites to better understand regional variations in stream quality, to assess attainable conditions, to develop biological criteria, and as a framework to report on water quality.
#|Groshens T P. Orth D J. AN ASSESSMENT OF THE TRANSFERABILITY OF HABITAT SUITABILITY CRITERIA FOR SMALLMOUTH BASS. Virginia Polytechnic Institute & State University Water Resources Research Center Bulletin (180). 1993. I-Xii, 1-104. The purpose of this study was to determine whether habitat suitability criteria developed in the summer months for smallmouth bass, Micropterus dolomieu, were transferable among streams representing different ecoregions. Habitat suitability criteria were developed for depth, mean column velocity, cover, and substrate for two size classes of smallmouth bass, 100-199 mm and .gtoreq. 200 mm, in the North Anna River and Craig Creek, Virginia. Criteria that accurately describe habitat selection by a species or guild in a system different from where the criteria were developed are said to be transferable to that system. The transferability of suitability criteria between the North Anna River and Craig Creek, as well as depth and mean column velocity criteria from Minnesota, the Huron River, Michigan, and the Upper James River, Virginia USA, to the North Anna River and Craig Creek were tested using a 2 .times. 2 contingency table analysis. Depth criteria for the smaller sizes of smallmouth bass did not transfer well between regions; four of the eight transferability tests (50%) failed. Depth criteria for larger smallmouth bass transferred to the North Anna River and Craig Creek in all cases. Velocity criteria developed for the smaller size classes did not transfer well among regions; only three of the eight transferability tests were positive. Likewise, velocity criteria for larger sizes of smallmouth bass did not transfer well; only one of eight tests were positive. General criteria were developed for depth and mean column velocity by averaging the suitability values reported from this and three other studies. General depth and velocity criteria transferred well to the North Anna River and Craig Creek for both the larger and smaller size classes of smallmouth bass; all depth tests were positive, and three of four velocity tests were positive. The improved success of transferability warrants investigation of developing general criteria for smallmouth bass. Cover criteria for both size classes of smallmouth bass were transferable from the North Anna River to Craig Creek, but not vice versa. Substrate heterogeneity criteria were not transferable between the North Anna River and Craig Creek for either size class of smallmouth bass. Criteria developed for the percentage of substrate particles .gtoreq. 15 cm (smallmouth bass .gtoreq. 200 mm only) were transferable from Craig Creek to the North Anna River but not vice versa. The transferability of habitat suitability criteria among regions was inconsistent, and it is recommended that site-specific criteria be developed for each stream to which habitat assessments are applied. Additionally, nose (focal point) velocities of smallmouth bass were more consistent between the North Anna River and Craig Creek than were mean column velocities used. Hence, it is recommended that information on nose velocities be incorporated into habitat studies to more accurately describe smallmouth bass velocity requirements.
#|Gross, R. H.  1997.  Site-Specific Criterion at a Textile Dyeing and Finishing Plant.  Assoc of Energy Eng/et al 16th World Energy Eng Congress: Energy and Pollut Control Opportunities to the Year 2000 (Fairmont Press).  p43(6). The government of South Carolina recently adopted the water quality criteria established by the EPA as standards for achieving compliance with the 1987 amendments to the Clean Water Act. The new regulations in South Carolina allow for a site-specific standard that is less strict than the EPA standards for cases in which biological testing justifies such an action. A case study is presented of the process undertaken by a textile dyeing and finishing plant to obtain the state's first site specific water quality standard. The facility in question was included in South Carolina's section 304(L) toxic discharger list due to high concentrations of copper and zinc in effluents. Biological assessments discovered significant instream impacts from the plant discharges.
#|Grothe, Donald R.; Dickson, Kenneth L.; Reed-Judkins, Donna.  Whole Effluent Toxicity Testing - an Evaluation of Methods & Prediction of Receiving System Impacts: Proceedings of the Pellston.  Workshop on Whole Effluent Toxicity, September 16-21, 1995, University of Michigan Biological Station, Douglas Lake, Pellston, Michigan. SETAC Special Publications, 1996.
#|Grothe,-D.R.  Discharge detective work. WATER-ENVIRON.-TECHNOL. 1996  vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 43-46.  During the past 10 years, whole effluent toxicity (WET) testing has become an integral component of most industrial National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permits. Although permit conditions vary nationwide because of site-specific factors and local or regional regulations, the primary objective of WET test is to ensure that wastewaters discharged into U.S. waters do not adversely affect aquatic life. Regulators typically incorporate a numerical WET limit into a discharge permit when a wastewater has affected or has the potential to affect the aquatic environment. Like its chemical counterpart, a WET limit gives regulators strict control over wastewater quality. Facilities that fail to meet toxicity discharge standards are subject to additional toxicity reduction evaluations (TREs), and regulatory fines.
#|Grothe,-D.R.; Johnson,-D.E.  Bacterial interference in whole-effluent toxicity tests. ENVIRON.-TOXICOL.-CHEM. 1996 vol. 15, no. 5, pp. 761-764.  Routine National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) cooling-water toxicity tests demonstrated an acute effect on Ceriodaphnia dubia and fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas). Test results were characterized by irregular mortality dose-response curves and a brown filamentous mass on the opercular area of affected fish. Some fish and Ceriodaphnia also became entrapped in filamentous material present on the bottom of the test vessels. Microscopic examination of test fish revealed severe fouling of the oral and branchial cavities with a mixed population of microbes, the major component being a filamentous sheathed bacteria. Treatment of water samples with a 0.45- mu m membrane filter and/or ultraviolet light sterilizer were effective in eliminating the bacteria and test organism mortalities. Regulatory test procedures were modified to allow filtration of the water prior to testing to eliminate this naturally occurring biological interference in toxicity tests.
#|Gruber, D ; Frago, C ; Rasnake, W J.  Implementation of a multiple biomonitoring approach to evaluate the potential for impact from an industrial discharge.  JOURNAL OF AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM HEALTH vol. 3, no. 4, pp. 259-271.  1994.  Over a 2-year period, an industrial discharger implemented a program to determine if there was a potential for in-stream impact from its discharge, and, if necessary, to eliminate that potential. Six basic study designs were used. These included: (1) ambient toxicity tests using indicator organisms (2) in-stream waste concentration (IWC) chronic testing using indicator organisms (3) on-site flow-through toxicity testing using indicator and resident species with receiving stream water as the diluent (4) in situ acute toxicity studies using indicator and resident species (5) biological surveys of the receiving stream and (6) artificial stream studies. The outcome of the studies resulted in conclusive data on which to base the design of a diffuser to dilute the effluent 1:20. This concentration was well below the lowest acute no-observed-effect concentration (10% effluent) determined using sensitive resident test species. In this manner, impact from the effluent on the James River had been reduced so that even the most sensitive resident species were protected. As a result of the study, the facility's permit was modified so that toxicity tests were made only on effluent diluted with receiving stream water to represent dilution at 1Q10 rather than 100 percent effluent. Follow-up studies have concentrated on a series of toxicity tests which were designed to identify the toxicants in the final effluent.
#|Guettinger, H. E.  1993.  Combined Interpretation of Biological and Chemical Field Data.  Sci Total Environ,  p1539(7). It has been hypothesized that the determination of the chemical and physical characteristics of a variety of habitats used by a specific species can be used to determine that species' tolerance limits for specific environmental parameters. This hypothesis is examined and its use in ecotoxicology is shown using ammonia. Data were gleaned from the literature to determine occurrence ranges for 697 taxonomic units of macroinvertebrates versus 28 physical and chemical parameters. Comparisons of the macroinvertebrate species show that these data can be used effectively to estimate ammonia tolerance limits. It is shown that a comparison of tolerance limits with toxicity-test data can be used also to define water-quality standards. Specific illustrations are presented.
#|Gunkel, G ; Mast, P G ; Nolte, C.  Pollution of aquatic ecosystems by polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB).  LIMNOLOGICA vol. 25, no. 3-4, pp. 321-331, 1995.  The waters in the urban areas of Berlin contain increased PCB residue in fish and sediment. The distribution of residue is shown based on an example of a body of water with no inflow or outflow (Lake Ploetze in Berlin). There is very strong bioaccumulation (the accumulation factor in organisms is approx. 40,000) and geo-accumulation in the sediment with a factor 10,000. The residue in the sediment of the lake, which is only about 7.7 ha in size, varies greatly although the sediments of the eutrophic lake (sapropel) must be regarded as homogeneous. Low chlorinated PCB migrates in the sediment, with di- and trichlorobiphenyls in particular moving into deeper layers of sediment. This is caused by the increase in water solubility caused by the high DOC content of the interstitial water and the effluent conditions in the lake. The PCB residue in the water can be very effectively monitored and assessed. A biological monitoring method with fish (bream, Abramis brama and roach, Rutilus rutilus) was developed and its results compared with those obtained by assessing the sediment residue. The PCB content of the larger and deeper lakes in Berlin and its environs is shown, using Lake Stechlin as a background water. An assessment method is introduced which uses evaluation categories to quantify the residue in the fish and sediment. The fish have 8 pollution categories the fish in the Berlin area are up to 60 times more heavily polluted than those in the background water. Twelve pollution categories must be defined for assessing the sediment, and the sediments in the waters of the Berlin area revealed increases in concentration of more than 1,000 compared with the background water.
#|Guven K. Duce J A. De Pomeraie D I .  Aquatic Toxicology (Amsterdam) 29 (1-2). 1994. 119-137. A transgenic strain of the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans which carries a stress-inducible lacZ reporter gene has been evaluated in terms of its response to several environmental toxicants. Optimal sensitivity is obtained by exposing these worms to toxicants at a temperature just below that required for heat induction of the transgene. Under these circumstances, several heavy metals (Cd-2+, Zn-2+, Hg-2+, Mn-2+, Sn-2+, Ag+) cause dose-dependent transgene expression, which can be monitored as beta-galactosidase enzyme activity or by in situ histochemical staining. A simple assessment procedure has been developed so that staining patterns can be compared between runs. The induced enzyme activity is localised in a single band (of apparent size 170 kD) on Western blots, as shown both by histochemical staining and immunoprobing. Endogenous heat-shock proteins (hsp70) are optimally induced under the same assay conditions, but modest induction is also apparent under control conditions (sub-heat-shock temperatures alone). Our system requires relatively high concentrations (ppm) of metallic ions for clear-cut induction, but is apparently more sensitive to certain organic and organo-metallic compounds (lindane and tributyltin are effective at ppb levels). This system works well within strictly defined assay conditions, but some toxicants are more effective inducers than others (e.g. Cd-2+ versus Mn-2+), while some give paradoxical dose-response curves possibly due to enzyme poisoning at high toxicant concentrations (e.g. Ag+). However, similar problems are likely to be encountered with any transgenic assay system based on the heat-shock response when used to monitor environmental pollution.
#|Haag, K H ; Garcia, R ; Jarrett, G L ; Porter, S D.  Water-quality assessment of the Kentucky River basin, Kentucky: Results of investigations of surface-water quality, 1987-90.  70 pp.  1995. Water Resources Investigations Report: 95-4163.  The U.S. Geological Survey investigated the water quality of the Kentucky River Basin in Kentucky as part of the National Water-Quality Assessment program. Data collected during 1987-90 were used to describe the spatial and temporal variability of water-quality constituents including metals and trace elements, nutrients, sediments, pesticides, dissolved oxygen, and fecal-coliform bacteria. Oil-production activities were the source of barium, bromide, chloride, magnesium, and sodium in several watersheds. High concentrations of aluminum, iron, and zinc were related to surface mining in the Eastern Coal Field Region. High concentrations of lead and zinc occurred in streambed sediments in urban areas, whereas concentrations of arsenic, strontium, and uranium were associated with natural geologic sources.  Concentrations of phosphorus were significantly correlated with urban and agricultural land use. The high phosphorus content of Bluegrass Region soils was an important source of phosphorus in streams. At many sites in urban areas, most of the stream nitrogen load was attributable to wastewater-treatment-plant effluent. Average suspended-sediment concentrations were positively correlated with discharge. There was a downward trend in suspended-sediment concentrations downstream in the Kentucky River main stem during the study. The most frequently detected herbicides in water samples were atrazine, 2,4-D, alachlor, metolachlor, and dicamba. Diazinon, malathion, and parathion were the most frequently detected organophosphate insecticides in water samples.  Detectable concentrations of aldrin, chlordane, DDT, DDE, dieldrin, endrin, endosulfan, heptachlor, and lindane were found in streambed-sediment samples. Dissolved-oxygen concentrations were sometimes below the minimum concentration needed to sustain aquatic life. At some sites, high concentrations of fecal-indicator bacteria were found and water samples did not meet sanitary water-quality criteria.
#|Haaparanta A; Valtonen ET; Hoffmann RW.  Gill anomalies of perch and roach from four lakes differing in water quality.  JOURNAL OF FISH BIOLOGY, 1997, V50, N3 (MAR), P575-591.  This study examined gill anomalies of two common freshwater fish species, roach Rutilus rutilus and perch Perca fluviatilis, collected over five seasons in 1989-1990 from four lakes in central Finland. The lakes differed both in water quality and in fish parasite species composition. Particular attention was paid to the differences in chloride cell proliferation. Gill anomalies were generally more common and abundant in roach than in perch. Chloride cell proliferation was the most frequent histological change in roach but was that least often found in perch. Most of the changes were systemic and light in severity. In perch an unidentified lesion of noncellular eosinophilic inclusions in an enlarged epithelium was also recorded. There was a marked pattern in the severity of histological changes in perch when comparing those from the natural Lake Peurunka to those from three 'altered' lakes. Gills of perch from Lake Peurunka possessed more alterations in all the recorded parameters. In roach, a significant differences were detected in chloride cell and epithelial proliferation: these were greater in Lake Peurunka and 'polluted' Lake Vatia. In perch, all histological changes were significantly more frequent at the end of autumn 1989 when compared to other seasons. In roach, increased frequencies of all gill changes were noted in winter and spring samples. Tissue reactions to parasites were either only localized or absent. The systemic gill alterations in freshwater fish may reflect the soft nature and low winter temperature of Finnish fresh waters, in which chemical imbalances, such as acid peaks, may induce more dramatic changes in fish tissues than in harder waters.
#|Hall, J. C. ; Hall, W.T. ; Simmons, C. T.  Water quality criteria for copper.  WATER ENVIRONMENT AND TECHNOLOGY vol. 9, no. 6, pp. 45-49.  1997.  Dissolved and particulate forms of copper are common trace contaminants in storm runoff and wastewater. In the dissolved state, copper appears in various forms, ranging from the cupric ion to numerous organic-inorganic complexes. The ionic form of copper is toxic at very low concentrations, while complexed copper is basically nontoxic. Regulatory agencies have long known about this "Jekyll and Hyde" behavior, but the standard permitting approach has been to assume that all dissolved copper is present in the most toxic form, which is rarely accurate because the ionic form is highly reactive, readily forming nontoxic complexes. Laboratory-derived numerical water quality criteria for copper, developed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in 1984 and updated in 1993, assume that the toxic form of dissolved copper exists in biologically treated effluents when, in fact, it does not. This causes erroneous permits to be issued, municipal resources to be misdirected, and industrial facilities to be adversely affected.
#|Hall, L. W. Jr., & Alden, R. W. I.  A review of concurrent ambient water column and sediment toxicity testing in the Chesapeake Bay watershed: 1990-1994.  Environmental toxicology and chemistry  Aug 1997. v. 16 (8) p. 1606-1617.  The objectives of this study were to identify toxic ambient areas in the Chesapeake Bay watershed by using a battery of water column and sediment toxicity tests.  Twenty-five ambient stations in nine river/harbors were tested during 1990 through 1994. Seasonal and annual comparisons were conducted at selected stations. Inorganic and organic contaminants were evaluated in ambient water and sediment concurrently with water column and sediment tests to assess possible causes of toxicity, although absolute causality cannot be established. Multivariate statistical analysis was used to develop a TOX-INDEX at each station for both water column and sediment toxicity data. Water column tests from the 5-year testing period showed that 43% of the time, some degree of toxicity was reported. The most toxic sites based on water column results were located in urbanized areas such as the Elizabeth River, Baltimore Harbor, and the Middle River. Water quality criteria for copper lead, mercury, nickel, and zinc were exceeded at one or more of these sites.  Some degree of sediment toxicity was reported from 70% of the tests conducted during the 5-year period. The Elizabeth River and Baltimore Harbor stations were reported as the most toxic areas based on sediment results. Sediment toxicity guidelines (Long and Morgan effects range median [ER-M] values) were exceeded for one or more of the following metals at these two locations: arsenic, cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, nickel, and zinc. At the Elizabeth River stations 9 of 16 semivolatile organics and 2 of 7 pesticides measured exceeded the ER-M values.  Various semivolatile organics exceeded the ER-M values at a number of Baltimore Harbor sites; pyrene and dibenzo (a.h) anthracene were particularly high at one of the stations (Northwest Harbor).
#|Hall, T J. A review of recent studies in North America using integrated monitoring approaches to assessing bleached kraft mill effluent effects on receiving waters.  ENVIRONMENTAL FATE AND EFFECTS OF PULP AND PAPER MILL EFFLUENTS. Servos, M R ; Munkittrick, K R ; Carey, J H ; van der Kraak, G J  (eds ). pp. 599-612, 1996.  International Conference on Environmental Fate and Effects of Bleached Pulp Mill Effluents.  Vancouver, British Columbia (Canada), 1994 Nov 6-10.  ST. LUCIE PRESS: DELRAY BEACH, FL. A review is provided of recent studies carried out in North America, where an integrated monitoring approach has been used in assessing possible bleached pulp mill effluent effects. Integrated monitoring has been here defined as an approach in which environmental impact assessment is based on multiple ecosystem measurements including population structure, standing crop, or production at several trophic levels. Examples of these types of studies include those carried out in mill receiving waters or experimental streams in which fish population, macroinvertebrate, and/or periphyton community characteristics have been described. In some cases it has been possible to compare and contrast the findings from these studies with the results from laboratory bioassay, biomarker, or biochemical measurements carried out at organism or suborganism levels with the same effluent. Although integrated monitoring studies can be expensive to conduct, they are considered of important value in addressing questions of ecological relevance with respect to assessing the environmental significance of mill effluents. This review summarizes the types of studies that were not previously reported, have been completed, or that are in progress in North America since the 1991 review by Owens and the SEPA "Environmental Fate and Effects of Bleached Pulp Mill Effluents" symposium (Soedergren 1991).
#|Hall,-J.-C.; Raider,-R.-L.  A Reflection on Metals Criteria. Water Environment & Technology WAETEJ, Vol. 5, No. 6, p 63-66, June 1993. The Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA'S) recent publication of the Interim Guidance on Interpretation and Implementation of Aquatic Life Criteria for Metals represents a significant advancement in the regulation of metals. The criteria are not enforceable, but are available to states to assist in the development of water quality standards. Once adopted by a state, the water quality standard becomes an enforceable requirement of the Clean Water Act. From the water quality standard, EPA (or the state) calculates the total maximum daily loads for receiving waters as well as the waste-load allocations for each discharge into the receiving water and then establishes the permit effluent limitations. A key recommendation is that of the water effect ratio (WER) method, a biological method comparing the bioavailability and toxicity in receiving waters downstream of the discharge with the bioavailability and toxicity in laboratory test water. The WER is a much more comprehensive measure than a ratio of total recoverable metal to dissolved metal. In recognition of toxicological variability, the guidance provides a framework for both statewide and site-specific adjustments to water quality standards that reflect the toxicity of various metal species in ambient waters. Critics argue that the interim guidance does not reflect the latest scientific knowledge, and that the regulatory alternatives are overprotective and discourage the use of the dissolved metals approach.
#|Hall,-W.-S.; Mirenda,-R.-J. Assessing Aquatic, Terrestrial Toxicity. Environmental Protection ENPRET, Vol. 4, No. 6, p 14-18, June 1993. It has long been recognized that the toxic effects of environmental samples cannot be predicted based on chemical concentration data alone. The use of toxicity tests allows for the consideration of site-specific physical and chemical factors that may increase or decrease the toxicity of a chemical in a given medium. Ecological concerns must also be considered when evaluating effluent discharges, contaminated sediments and hazardous waste site soils. In this respect, the use of in-stream bioassessments or ecological surveys of aquatic or terrestrial ecosystems can provide valuable in-situ data on long-term toxic effects. The toxicity test methods for soils include whole soil and soil elutriate procedures, while sediment toxicity tests may involve whole sediment, sediment elutriate or sediment interstitial water. Sediment toxicity testing is also useful in determining the temporal and spatial distribution of contaminants for site characterization, in prioritizing clean-up efforts, in assigning clean-up liability, or in determining if remedial actions are warranted. In conclusion, the protocols for aquatic toxicity testing are well established, can produce environmentally realistic data and can be used to identify specific chemical toxicants. The protocols for sediment and soil testing are not as well established, and standardized chronic protocols are not yet finalized.
#|Hallock, R. J., & Hallock, L. L. F.  1993.  Detailed Study of Irrigation Drainage in and near Wildlife Management.  USGS Water-Resour Investig Report 92-4024B.  91p. Water and wildlife samples were collected at Carson Lake and Stillwater Marsh, NV, and analyzed for normal water-quality criteria, as well as for concentrations of inorganic constituents. On-site toxicity tests were made with portions of the water samples collected daily from each location. The toxicity tests involved bluegills, fathead minnow larvae, and daphnids. Water samples from irrigation drains and reservoirs were analyzed. Results indicated that the surface water near the irrigation drains and drainage water were acutely toxic to all test organisms. Strong positive correlations were found between the aggregate of arsenic, boron, lithium, and molybdenum, and overall levels of toxicity. Concentrations of B, mercury, and selenium at adverse effect levels were found in juvenile migratory birds from several study sites. Especially high concentrations of Hg and Se were found in muscles and livers of waterfowl collected from Carson Lake and from the Fernley Wildlife Management Area.
#|Hamblin-Katnik, C. (1993). USEPA water quality criteria for copper; I, Exceedence of criteria in freshwater streams; II, Influence of dissolved organic matter on toxicity.  1993.  Thesis, Ph.D.  George Mason University, Fairfax, VA, United States.
#|Hansen, L. D.; Maier, K. J.; Knight, A. W. The effect of sulfate on the bioconcentration of selenate by Chironomus decorus and Daphnia magna. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology  vol. 25 (1): p.72-78, 1993.  Agricultural drainage containing high concentrations of selenium (Se) poses a continuing threat to wildlife in California's San Joaquin Valley. Drainage water from this area frequently contains high concentrations of sulfate, which are known to have mediating effects on the bioaccumulation and toxicity of Se in some organisms. It has been proposed that sulfate concentration should be a consideration in determining water quality criteria for Se. As a step toward analysing the viability of such a plan, this study evaluated the effect of varying sulfate concentration on Se bioconcentration by 2 aquatic invertebrates. 4th-instar larvae of C. ecorus and neonate D. magna were exposed for 48 h to 5.92 and 0.71 mg Se/litre, as selenate, respectively. The selenium:sulfur (Se:S) ratio in the dilution waters ranged from 1:0 to 1:480 for C. decorus and 1:3 to 1:240 for D. magna.  Increasing sulfate concentrations significantly reduced the accumulation of Se by both organisms.  However, these 2 organisms bioconcentrate Se differently at low sulfate concentrations. This difference can be explained by a 2 permease model for selenate/sulfate absorption. Although this experiment showed that sulfate may reduce selenate bioavailability to aquatic invertebrates, there is no indication that sulfate may completely eliminate selenate absorption. Thus further research should be performed before sulfate concentration becomes a factor in the determination of water quality standards for selenium.
#|Hanson, David A. Great Lakes Initiative More Than a Local Water Reg.  Pollut Eng  v27, n1, p52(2), Jan 95.  The Great Lakes Water Quality Initiative (GLI), based on the amendments in the 1990 Clean Water Act and the 1987 Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement between the US and Canada, provides a comprehensive regulatory foundation for water pollution control. Proposed changes to the GLI include new regulations for bioaccumulative chemicals, water quality criteria for wildlife, human health and aquatic criteria for new chemicals, improvements of antidegradation regulations, and consistent methods for developing permit limits. The widespread impacts of the GLI make it a model for national water pollution efforts.
#|Happel-A.M. Evaluation of actinide biosorption by microorganisms. Lawrence Livermore National Lab., CA. Department of Energy, Washington, DC.  Jun 96. 20p. Conventional methods for removing metals from aqueous solutions include chemical precipitation, chemical oxidation or reduction, ion exchange, reverse osmosis, electrochemical treatment and evaporation. The removal of radionuclides from aqueous waste streams has largely relied on ion exchange methods which can be prohibitively costly given increasingly stringent regulatory effluent limits. The use of microbial cells as biosorbants for heavy metals offers a potential alternative to existing methods for decontamination or recovery of heavy metals from a variety of industrial waste streams and contaminated ground waters. The toxicity and the extreme and variable conditions present in many radionuclide containing waste streams may preclude the use of living microorganisms and favor the use of non-living biomass for the removal of actinides from these waste streams. In the work presented here, we have examined the biosorption of uranium by non-living, non-metabolizing microbial biomass thus avoiding the problems associated with living systems. We are investigating biosorption with the long term goal of developing microbial technologies for the remediation of actinides.
#|Harding JS. Winterbourn MJ. Mcdiffett WF. STREAM FAUNAS AND ECOREGIONS IN SOUTH ISLAND, NEW ZEALAND -DO THEY CORRESPOND.  Archiv fur Hydrobiologie. 140(3):289-307, 1997 Sep. Water chemistry and benthic invertebrate communities of 100 headwater streams within 10 South Island, New Zealand, ecoregions were examined to assess the usefulness of ecoregions as a basis for stream classification. Water chemistry did not vary in a systematic manner among ecoregions and sheared considerable variation within some of them. In contrast, invertebrate communities differed among ecoregions in a much more consistent way. Taxonomic richness, numbers of endemic species, species dominance and summer faunal densities all differed among ecoregions, but little discrimination was possible using functional feeding groups. Stream faunas were generally similar between forested ecoregions, whereas the alpine (Southern Alps) ecoregion had the most distinct fauna. Geographically distinct areas that have been deforested and are dominated by tussock grassland and improved pasture now have very similar stream faunas with few regionally distinct elements present. Our results provide qualified support for the use of ecoregions as a basis for stream classification in New Zealand.
#|Harrass, M.C.; Crane, M.; Cahpman, P.F. Regulatory use of ecotoxicity statistics: A US perspective.  Conference on Ecotoxicology and Statistics, 1995.  ASKING THE RIGHT QUESTIONS: ECOTOXICOLOGY AND STATISTICS  VOL. 5, NO. 3, pp. 145-154, 1996.  A variety of regulatory requirements for ecotoxicity test data exist in the US and each of these is able to specify what test protocols and endpoints are used.  General practice is tocalculate regression curve endpoints, usually EC sub(50) values, for acute tests, and hypothesis test endpoints (e.g. NOEC, LOEC) for chronic studies.  However, tests of wastewater effluents often use a hypothesis test endpoint which has been derived using site-specific information to represent a pass-fail standard for compliance. Field work, such as site assessments, tends touse hypothesis tests, but such work does not eek the dose-responsecurve sought in standard laboratory tests. The risk-based approaches being developed use either type of endpoint, but this seems to be an accommodation to existing data; preference is fordose-response curves, not just a single ECx value.  Endpoints are only one component of the conventional paradigm of environmental protection. Experience with various tests and endpoints suggest several perspectives: quality is critical, test species must be reliableand relevant, extrapolations will dominate decisions, and basing environmental decisions on the most sensitive endpoint of the most sensitive species may not remain a feasible paradigm for protecting ecological systems.
#|Harrel, R C ; McConnell, M A. The estuarine clam Rangia cuneata as a biomonitor of dioxins and furans in the Neches River, Taylor Bayou, and Fence Lake, Texas.  ESTUARIES vol. 18, no. 1B, pp. 264-270, 1995.  Polychlorinated dibenzo-para-dioxins (PCDDs) and dibenzofurans (PCDFs) were measured in the tissues of the estuarine clam Rangia cuneata at four sites in the Neches River that had been subjected to paper mill effluent and at two remote sites. One of the river samplings was taken before dioxin control measures and another 2 yr after the control measures began. Measurable concentrations of PCDD/Fs were present at all sites, but higher concentrations were present at the Neches River sites. Whole tissue concentrations of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-para-dioxin (TCDD) and all PCDD congeners for the two collections were not significantly different (p > 0.05), but lipid-normalized concentrations for the two collections were significantly different (p < 0.05). Highest concentrations of PCDDs at sites located 8 km and 16 km upriver from the paper mill effluent outfall indicated that the materials were transported upriver by saltwater intrusion and/or that nonpoint sources existed upriver. The presences of PCDD/Fs in clam tissues from the remote sites also indicated that other sources of these materials existed. Even under extreme physiological conditions (spent reproductive phase, low lipid contents, water temperature 10 degree C ripe reproductive phase, high lipids, water temperature 32 degree C) Rangia cuneata was an effective biomonitor to determine the distribution of PCDD/Fs at specific sites.
#|Havens, Patrick L.; Cryer, Steven A.; Rolston, Laurie J. Tiered Aquatic Risk Refinement:  Case Study-At-Plant Applications of Granular Chlorpyrifos to Corn.  Environ Toxicol Chem  v17, n7, p1313(10) Jul 98.  A tiered analysis is outlined, which emphasizes the EPA approach to the characterization of risk to nontarget aquatic ecosystems. The first tier estimates the runoff potential and near-field aquatic concentrations using a simple algebraic calculation, while Tier II involves a more detailed modeling approach based on standard scenarios. Tier III estimates the potential exposure in a geographically linked form. The methodology is illustrated for at-plant applications of granular chlorpyrifos to corn. The illustration shows that reduced tillage and vegetative filter strips can reduce chlorpyrifos runoff.
#|Hayes,-K.R.; Douglas,-W.S.; Fischer,-J. Inter- and intra-laboratory testing of the Daphnia magna IQ Toxicity Test. ENVIRON.-CONTAM.-TOXICOL. 1996  vol. 57, no. 4, pp. 660-666.  The United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), through the Clean Water Act has mandated toxicity testing as part of routine monitoring of effluent discharges. Many state agencies have implemented these regulations and included toxicity limits in discharge permits and penalties for non-compliance. Although standardized bioassay protocols have been utilized to assess compliance (USEPA guidance), results of toxicity tests are usually not available for between 48 and 96 hours following sample collection. Recently, the Daphnia magna IQ Toxicity Test super(TM) has been proposed as a technique for obtaining toxicity information in as little as 75 minutes following sample collection (ASTM, 1993). The IQ Toxicity Test super(TM) assesses toxicity by observing, in vivo, the cleavage of the fluorometric biomarker methylumbelliferyl galactoside (MUF). Animals are exposed to a toxicant for one hour and then a solution of biomarker substrate is added directly to the exposure chamber. Those organisms that feed normally and with functional galactosidase enzyme systems are able to cleave the marker from the substrate. The fluorescent marker is freed to the hemolymph of the organism and is readily observed visually using long wave UV light. When this biomarker test is correlated to standard 48-hour toxicity tests, agreement has been shown to be greater than 95%.
#|Healy-R.; Childs-R. Categorization Assessment Report for Pesticide Active Ingredients. Final rept. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Standards and Applied Science Div. 1 Jul 93. 243p. The report provides a qualitative categorization assessment for three sets of Pesticide Active Ingredients (PAIS): (1) The 270 PAIS initially considered for regulation; (2) A List of PAIS reported as manufactured in the 1986 Pesticide Manufacturing Census and subsequent follow-up data; and (3) A list of 120 PAIS that are being regulated under effluent guidelines. The categorization assessment uses readily-available physical-ion persistence, and aquatic toxicity of the PAIS, thus giving an indication of the potential environmental impacts due to PAIS released to the environment.
#|Healy-R.; Childs-R. Toxic Weighting Factors for Pesticide Active Ingredients and Priority Pollutants. Final rept. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Office of Water. 13 Jul 93. 64p. This report provides toxic weighting factors for 270 pesticide active ingredients and 126 priority pollutants. It is intended to be used to assist in the cost effectiveness analysis of the effluent guidelines for the pesticide chemical manufacturing category. Copper has been selected as the standard pollutant for developing weighting factors.
#|Heiny, J S ; Tate, C M.  Concentration, distribution, and comparison of selected trace elements in bed sediment and fish tissue in the South Platte River Basin, USA, 1992-1993.  ARCHIVES OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY vol. 32, no. 3, pp. 246-259, 1997.  During August-November 1992 and August 1993, bed sediment and fish liver were sampled in the South Platte River Basin and analyzed for 45 elements in bed sediment and 19 elements in fish liver. The results for aluminum, arsenic, cadmium, chromium, copper, iron, lead, manganese, selenium, silver, uranium, and zinc are presented here. All 12 trace elements were detected in bed sediment, but not all were detected in fish liver or in all species of fish. A background concentration of trace elements in bed sediment was calculated using the cumulative frequency curves of trace element concentrations at all sites. Arsenic, cadmium, copper, lead, manganese, silver, uranium, and zinc concentrations were greater than background concentrations at sites in mining areas or at sites that have natural sources of these elements. Trace element concentrations in fish liver generally did not follow the same patterns as concentrations in bed sediment, although concentrations of aluminum and cadmium were higher in fish liver collected at mountain sites that had been disturbed by mining.  Concentrations of aluminum, arsenic, cadmium, chromium, copper, iron, lead, silver, and zinc increased in bed sediments in urban areas. Iron, silver, and zinc concentrations in fish liver also increased in urban areas. Concentrations of cadmium, copper, silver, and zinc in fish liver increased in the agricultural areas of the basin. Downstream changes in trace element concentrations may be the result of geological changes in addition to changes in land use along the river.
#|Hellawell JM; Boon PJ; Howell DL.  The contribution of biological and chemical techniques to the assessment of water quality.  FRESHWATER QUALITY: DEFINING THE INDEFINABLE?, 1997, P89-101.  Water quality can only be defined in terms of intended use; for example, potable supply, industrial cooling, effluent disposal, fisheries, recreation, wildlife and nature conservation. Generally, the aim is to set critical values for selected parameters or determinands which are considered to indicate a particular quality state. 2. Chemical and biological methods of analysis are complementary rather than competitive: each approach has strengths and weaknesses.  Chemical methods tend to be mainly 'in vitro' and enjoy advantages in terms of reliability, accuracy, precision and reproducibility. Results are obviously restricted to those determinands which are measured and their relevance depends on the extent to which their significance is understood in relation to the intended use of the water. Biological methods are largely 'in vivo' in approach. Living systems from the sub-cellular, through organisms, to whole ecosystems may be utilized. At each level of increasing complexity the results tend to be more directly relevant to wider environmental protection and regulation. However, the behaviour of higher orders of biological organization in relation to environmental changes tends to be complex and is not readily measured and analysed. 3. Temporal variations in water quality effect an integrated response from biological systems and studying these may be a more effective means of assessing such variations than continuous monitoringof a necessarily restricted range of abiotic parameters. 4. The quest for the ideal single measure of biological water quality, often in the form of an 'index', has largely been driven by comparing the behaviour of each measure in relation to other parameters, such as chemical determinands, or to subjective preconceptions of the 'true' water quality based on detailed knowledge of a particular site. By iterative modification of indices, a solution which provides a good match with the perceived quality is obtained. The index can then be utilized elsewhere to assess the status of less well-known waters.
#|Hennessy, M.M.; Wilson, L.; Struthers, W.; Kelly, L.A.  Waste loadings from two freshwater Atlantic salmon juvenile farms in Scotland.  WATER, AIR, SOIL POLLUT  VOL.  86, NO. 1-4, pp. 235-249, 1996.  Studies of waste generation from the freshwater phase of atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) production have not been substantially updated since the mid 1980's, and advances in husbandry practices designed to reduce wastage which have taken place in that period therefore remain unconsidered. In order to determine if reductions have been achieved, two Scottish fish farms were visited on a number of occasions during one year, and outputs of suspended solids (SS), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), total ammonia nitrogen (TAN) (NH sub(3)+NH sub(4) super(+)), dissolved reactive and total phosphorus (DRP, TP) were monitored. The range of waste loadings obtained were 9.1-10.0 kg TP t/fish/yr, 410 kg BOD sub(5) t/fish/yr, 191-606 kg SS t/fish/y, and 20.3-39.3 kg TAN-N t/fish/yr. Compared to existing data, a greater range of daily waste loadings were observed, suggesting that morefrequent monitoring is required to reduce variations observed in the data set, and to obtain accurate information on waste outputs from such operations.  Modifications of feeding methods remains a route through which further reductions in waste outputs may be made.
#|Herkimer, Michael; Kinnear, David; Krauth, Paul; Loader, Kent; Okey, Robert; Rawlings, Lee; Reynolds, Florence.  Biomonitoring. Water Environment Research  70 (4):p954-962 June, 1998.
#|Herkovits, J ; Silvia Perez Coll, C ; Herkovits, F D.  Ecotoxicity in the Reconquista River, Province of Buenos Aires, Argentina: A preliminary study.  EHP/ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES vol. 104, no. 2, pp. 186-189, 1996.  The Reconquista River in Argentina is considered a "supercritical" river basin due to environmental degradation. Within its valley of 1.547 km super(2), there are more than 3 million inhabitants and 12,000 industries. Using early-life-stage toxicity tests with Bufo arenarum embryos (the most sensitive of three native species), we determined the water quality at six sampling stations of the river valley and expressed the results as acute and chronic toxicity units. Along most of the river, the toxicity was higher than the allowable level of whole industrial effluent toxicity recommended by U.S. EPA. In a tributary stream, Arroyo Moron, the water was about 10 times more toxic than the criteria maximum concentration (CMC) recommended by U.S. EPA for industrial effluents. Similar degradation of the water quality was found taking as a reference value an upstream sampling station. In all places where the water quality was worse than the CMC, no macroorganisms were found, and in one of these places, a large number of dead fishes was observed. Our study points out that amphibian early-life-stage toxicity tests could be appropriate for assessing water contamination and water quality, which is essential for diagnosis, protection of environmental services, monitoring, and restoration purposes.
#|Herlihy AT, Stoddard JL, Johnson CB. The relationship between stream chemistry and watershed land cover data in the mid-Atlantic region, US.  WATER AIR AND SOIL POLLUTION : (1-2) 377-386 JUL 1998.  In order to investigate the relationship between stream chemistry and watershed land cover at the regional scale, we analyzed data from 368 wadeable streams sampled in the mid-Atlantic region of the U.S. during spring 1993-1994. Study sites were selected using a probability sample and the digitized version of the 1:100,000 scale USGS map stream network as the sample population. Both classified Thematic Mapper (TM) and USGS Land Use/Land Cover (LULC) data were used to quantify land cover in the study watersheds. On average, the most common land cover was forest (77%) followed by agriculture (20%), and urban (1%). Multiple regression analysis showed that concentrations of Cl-, nutrients, acid neutralization capacity, and base cations were the analytes most strongly related to watershed land cover. Despite large differences in resolution and age of the TM and LULC data sources, similar results were obtained with the two sources. Using a greater number of land cover subclasses did not greatly improve the land cover-chemistry relationships. Ecoregions with predominantly forested land cover had weaker relationships than ecoregions with more agricultural and/or urban land cover. In studies or databases without land cover information, Cl- concentration is a good surrogate indicator for general human disturbance in the watershed.
#|Herricks, Edwin.  Watershed/Ecosystem Issues in Urban Runoff Monitoring and Management.  Am Soc Civ Eng/et al Integrated Water Resour Plan for the 21st Century 22nd Annu Conf Proc, Cambridge, MA  p45(3) May 7-11, 95.  (Full text available from Congressional Information Service at 1-800-227-2477).  Formal and informal discussions held at the Engineering Foundation Conference, sponsored by ASCE's Urban Water Resources Council, brought out critical issues relating to National Pollution Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) watershed management and monitoring. From an ecological perspective, studies suggest that stormwater and urban runoff cause short- and long-term changes in habitat physical stability and chemical toxicity in receiving waters. Among the specific topics of discussion were: thresholds of ecological degradation, ecoregion approaches to ecosystem assessment, standardized metrics as biological measures, and time-scale toxicity.
#|HESPANHOL I; PROST A ME.  WHO guidelines and national standards for reuse and water quality. WATER RESEARCH; 28 (1). 1994. 119-124.  Guidelines for reuse and drinking water quality are based on scientific research and epidemiological findings, and as such provide guidance for making risk management decisions related to the protection of public health and the preservation of the environment.  Water quality standards are legal impositions enacted by means of laws, regulations or technical procedures, which are established by countries by adapting guidelines to their national priorities and taking in account their technical, economical, social, cultural and political characteristics and constraints.  Several examples are presented with the objective ofdifferentiating standards from guidelines, and to show how countries have been adapting WHO guidelines to their situations inorder to produce national standards on drinking water quality, and for the use of treatedwastewater for crop irrigation.
#|Hewitt,-L.M.; Carey,-J.H.; Dixon,-D.G.; Munkittrick,-K.R.  Examination of bleached kraft mill effluent fractions for potential inducers of mixed function oxygenase activity in rainbow trout.  ENVIRONMENTAL FATE AND EFFECTS OF PULP AND PAPER MILL EFFLUENTS. Servos,-M.R.; Munkittrick,-K.R.; Carey,-J.H.; van-der-Kraak,-G.J. (eds.)  DELRAY BEACH, FL 33483 (USA)  ST. LUCIE PRESS.1996 pp. 79-94. The induction of mixed function oxygenase (MFO) enzymes in fish exposed to pulping effluents is well documented but the responsible compounds are unidentified. Liver ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase (EROD) activity was determined in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) after exposures to fractions generated from the effluent of a modernized bleached kraft pulp and paper mill. Exposures to whole and filtered (<1 mu m) effluent, resuspended solids, and two fractions generated from nanofiltration were conducted for primary effluent, effluent after secondary treatment (aerated lagoon), and effluent collected during a scheduled pulping shutdown. For each fraction exposed, effluent constituents were detected using GC with ECD, and FID as well as GC-MS. Exposure concentrations were compared with EROD activities to evaluate their potential to cause induction. Resin acids, fatty acids, bacterial fatty acids, terpenes, chlorophenolics, aliphatic alkanes, plant sterols, and chlorinated dimethylsulfones for which authentic standards were available were eliminated as potential EROD inducers. Several chlorophenolics, including tetrachloroguaiacol, exhibited a correlation with observed induction patterns but subsequent exposures to pure tetrachloroguaiacol failed to cause MFO induction. The correlations exhibited by these compounds may indicate the potential source of the chemicals responsible for MFO induction.
#|Hickey C W, & Vickers M L.  Toxicity of ammonia to nine native New Zealand freshwater invertebrate species.  Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 26 (3), 1994.  292-298. The toxic concentration for un-ionized ammonia (NH-3) was assessed for nine native New Zealand invertebrate species. The 96-h EC-50 values at 15 degree C and pH 7.6 and pH 8.2 ranged from 0.18 to gt 0.8 g/m-3 NH-3. The rank of species sensitivity was: shrimp (Paratya curvirostris) (least) apprxeq mayfly (Zephlebia dentata) apprxeq stonefly (Zealandobius furcillatus) lt Oligochaeta (Lumbriculus variegatus) lt fingernail clam (Sphaerium novaezelandiae) lt mayfly (Deleatidium spp.) lt a snail (Potamopyrgus antipodarum) lt caddis (Pycnocentria evecta) lt crustacean (Paracalliope fluviatilis) (most). Surprisingly, the more sensitive species were those which would normally be associated with lowland streams (the snail and crustacean) rather than the normally accepted "sensitive" species (mayflies and stoneflies). Temperature had no significant effect on the acute toxicity of un-ionized ammonia with snails tested at 15, 20, and 25 degree C. The invertebrates were more sensitive than the native fish species tested (inanga, EC-50 1.60 g/m-3 NH-3; Richardson 1991). A final acute value (FAV) calculated for these species was 0.15 g/m-3 NH-3. This compares with the FAV value of 0.52 g/m-3 NH, derived by the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) as the basis for the ammonia criterion for salmonid containing waters. Thus EPA criteria may not provide adequate protection for New Zealand species. These data suggest that chronic studies would be particularly desirable on native New Zealand species to better determine their sensitivity to long term ammonia exposure.
#|Hinzman, R. L. ; Adams, S. M. ; Ashwood, T. L.  Third report on the Oak Ridge K-25 Site Biological Monitoring and Abatement Program for Mitchell Branch.  Report No.: ORNL/TM-12790.  Aug 95, 250p.  Environmental Sciences Division Publication No. 4305.  y Department of Energy, Washington, DC.  As a condition of the modified National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit issued to the Oak Ridge Gaseous Diffusion Plant (ORGDP; now referred to as the Oak Ridge K-25 Site) on September 11, 1986, a Biological Monitoring and Abatement Program (BMAP) was developed for the receiving stream (Mitchell Branch or K-1700 stream).  A biological monitoring plan was submitted for Mitchell Branch, Poplar Creek, Poplar Creek Embayment of the Clinch River and any unnamed tributaries of these streams.  The objectives of BMAP are to (1) demonstrate that the effluent limitations established for the Oak Ridge K-25 Site protect and maintain the use of Mitchell Branch for growth and propagation of fish and other aquatic life and (2) document the effects on stream biota resulting from operation of major new pollution abatement facilities, including the Central Neutralization Facility (CNF) and the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) incinerator.  The BMAP consists of four tasks:  (1) toxicity monitoring; (2) bioaccumulation monitoring; (3) assessment of fish health; and (4) instream monitoring of biological communities, including benthic macroinvertebrates and fish. This document, the third in a series, reports on the results of the Oak Ridge K-25 Site BMAP; it describes studies that were conducted over various periods of time between June 1990 and December 1993, although monitoring conducted outside this time period is included, as appropriate.
#|Hinzman, R. L. ; Southworth, G. R. ; Stewart, A. J. ; Filson, M. J. Evaluation of the environmental effects of stormwater pollutants for Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Department of Energy, Washington, DC. Report No.: ORNL/TM-12888.  Jul 95, 193p.  Environmental Sciences Division Publication Number 4359. Order this product from NTIS by: phone at 1-800-553-NTIS (U.S. customers); (703)605-6000 (other countries); fax at (703)321-8547; and email at orders@ntis.fedworld.gov. Contract No.: AC05-84OR21400.  Despite Best Management Practices (BMP), total suspended solids (TSS) and oil and grease (O and G) concentrations in stormwater runoff frequently have been above the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) Permit effluent limits at ORNL.  Although the effects of stormwater pollutants to aquatic ecosystems are of concern regionally and nationally, NPDES permit violations at ORNL are best addressed on a site-specificbasis. This document explores several key questions to determine whether the TSS and O and G noncompliances at ORNL are primarily a regulatory problem (i.e., Category 1 and 2 effluent limits are neither reasonably achievable nor effective in achieving environmental protection), or a legitimate ecological concern that will require effective remediation. The three tasks outlined in the study plan were to (1) clarify the degree of TSS and O and G noncompliances at ORNL, (2) provide guidance as to appropriate limits for TSS and O and G in Category 1 and 2 discharges, and (3) provide information about the effectiveness of possible mitigation or remediation measures for SS and O and G in stormwater releases, assuming that such measures are needed for one or more ORNL Category 1 or 2 outfalls.
#|Hinzman, R.L.; Adams, S.M.; Black, M.C.  Second report on the Oak Ridge Y-12 Plant Biological Monitoring and Abatement Program for East Fork Poplar Creek.  Oak Ridge Y-12 Plant, TN.; Oak Ridge National Lab., TN.  Environmental Sciences Division Publication No. 3859.  Department of Energy, Washington, DC. 427p.  As stipulated in the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NDPES) permit issued to the Oak RidgeY-12 Plant on May 24, 1986, a Biological Monitoring and Abatement Program (BMAP) was developed for the receiving stream, East Fork Poplar Creek (EFPC). The objectives of BMAP are (1) to demonstrate that the current effluent limitations established for the Y-12 Plant protect the classified uses of EFPC (e.g., the growth and propagation of fish and aquatic life), as designated by the Tennessee Department of Environment and Conservation (TDEC) and (2) to document the ecological effects resulting from implementation of a Water Pollution Control Program that includes construction of several large wastewater treatment facilities.  BMAP consists of four major tasks: (1) ambient toxicity testing; (2) bioaccumulation studies; (3) biological indicator studies; and (4) ecological surveys of stream communities, including periphyton (attached algae), benthic (bottom-dwelling) macroinvertebrates, and fish. This document, the second in a series of reports on the results of the Y-12 Plant BMAP, describes studies that were conducted between July 1986 and July 1988, although additional data collected outside this time period are included, as appropriate.
#|Hitchcock, D. R.; Black, M. C.; Williams, P. L. Investigations into using the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans for municipal and industrial wastewater toxicity testing. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology vol. 33 (3): p.252-260, 1997. This investigative study assessed the ease and usefulness of C. elegans for identifying contributors to effluent toxicity within an industrial and municipal wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) system. A major objective of this study was to identify primary sources of toxicity throughout the system with a nematode toxicity test. 24h composite water samples were taken periodically over a 10-month period at 5 strategic points within the system:  (1) at the point of discharge at each of the 3 industries, (2)at the combined industrial influent of the wastewater treatment plant, (3) at the effluent of the WWTP, (4) upstream of the WWTP discharge and (5) downstream of the WWTP discharge. Samples were analysed for basic water chemistry, and each sample was tested for whole effluent toxicity using a 72h nematode test with mortality as the end point. Results suggested that interactions between the wastewaters of certain industries may increase the overall nematode toxicity in the wastewater treatment facility's composite influent and effluent.  Nematode mortality trends indicated relatively high toxicity levels in wastewater entering the WWTP from contributing industries. High WWTP influent toxicity may potentially be due to varying flow rate ratios f industrial discharges, release of varying toxic constituents in wastewaters, and toxic interactions between chemical constituents of industrial wastewaters.  The evaluation of toxicity within the treatment system may pinpoint locations where pollution prevention strategies may be implemented to reduce overall toxicity at the point of discharge.
#|Hockett J Russell; Mount David R.  Use of metal chelating agents to differentiate among sources of acute aquatic toxicity.  Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 15 (10):p1687-1693 1996.  Metals are common toxicants found in effluents and other environmental samples. Within Toxicity Identification Evaluation methods proposed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and others, addition of ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) is used as an indicator of metal toxicity. Previous experiments showed that addition of sodium thiosulfate, originally included to detect toxicity due to oxidants, was also effective at reducing toxicity from some common metals. In the present study, we characterized the effectiveness of both EDTA and thiosulfate in removing the toxicity of 16 different metal ions to Ceriodaphnia dubia.  Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid addition removed toxicity associated with all cationic metals tested except for Cr-3+, Fe-2+, Al-3+, and Ag+. Thiosulfate addition was less effective than EDTA for Zn-2+, Mn-2+, Pb-2+, and Ni-2+, but reduced toxicity of both Ag+ and selenite (Se(VI)), which EDTA did not. Results of this research can be used to categorize metal toxicity in unknown samples based on the response to additions of EDTA and thiosulfate.
#|Hofer R; Jeney Z; Bucher F.  Chronic effects of linear alkylbenzene sulfonate (LAS) and ammonia on rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) fry at water criteria limits.  Water Research, 29 (12). 1995.  2725-2729.  Rainbow trout fry was chronically exposed (54 days) to 0.2 mg l-1 LAS(C-11-12). Although this concentration is considered to be the NOEC (no observed effect concentration), lamellar gill epithelia hypertrophied and swimming capacity was reduced. Furthermore, the exposure of the fish to a secondary stressor (low salinity challenge test) caused increased mortality. Un-ionized ammonia did not affect the above-mentioned parameters when fish were treated with a NOEC of 24 mu-g l-1. At 72 mu-g l-1, however, unionized ammonia caused distinct hypertrophy of gill epithelia. This effect was significantly enhanced when combined with LAS (additive effect). Only in this group, growth was reduced.
#|Hogrefe, R.  Albuquerque's NPDES wastewater discharge permit 1994. (1995).  In: THE FUTURE OF ALBUQUERQUE AND MIDDLE RIO GRANDE BASIN. PROCEEDINGS OF THE 39TH ANNUAL NEW MEXICO WATER CONFERENCE, Albuquerque, NM., 1994 Nov 3-4, pp. 317-320.  The 1994 Albuquerque discharge permit was issued three years after the City's previous permit expired in 1991. Significant changes were made in the 1987 Federal Clean Water Act Amendments. The changes added new toxicity criteria to be adopted under state stream standards that translate to new NPDES permit limits. New Mexico followed suit and in1991 adopted new criteria that materially impacted discharges to surface waters. In addition, the 1987 Amendments authorized Indian Pueblos to adopt protective stream standards under the same authority as states. The Pueblo of Isleta was the first Indian Pueblo to pursue this action and the City of Albuquerque was the first NPDES permit holder to be impacted directly by this action. Deliberations occurred between the EPA, State of New Mexico, Pueblo of Isleta, and the City during 1993 and early 1994. A Settlement Agreement was reached in April 1994, which stipulated a new permit with new limits. The Agreement also stipulated important studies to be performed by the U.S. Geological Survey, funded by the parties to the Agreement. The City of Albuquerque has committed the lion's share of funding for the Agreement, $150,000.  The City's new permit effective June 1, 1994, places limits on conventional parameters such as Biochemical Oxygen Demand, suspended solids and fecal coliform as well as limits for silver and arsenic. Monitoring must be performed for aluminum, ammonia, cyanide, nitrate, and biomonitoring. Chlorine is limited to nondetection. The City must follow a fast-track program for achieving ammonia removal through nitrification/denitrification by 1998. The estimated capital costs are $60 million. A pilot wetlands project also is in design stages.
#|Hogrefe, R.H.; Ornelas, D.O.  A gem of an idea.  WATER ENVIRON. TECHNOL  VOL. 8, NO. 12, pp. 55-60, 1996.  In New Mexico, jewelry making generates $16 million per year in wages, contributing nearly $200 million annually to the state's economy. Jewelry manufacturers in Albuquerque include one- and two-person custom jewelry and repair shops as well as larger shops with hundreds of workers who make jewelry for the mass market.  The major wastewater concerns in jewelry making are dissolved and particulate metals and acid pickling solutions. Although not as common, wastes containing cyanide, cadmium, and lead also cause concern. The New Mexico Water Quality Control Commission in 1991 adopted a chronic state wastestream standard of 0.12 parts per billion (ppb) for silver, based on EPA criteria. It was revoked in 1994 because Albuquerque officials protested that such a standard automatically put it in violation of National Pollution Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) silver limits.
#|Hogstrand, C ; Galvez, F ; Wood, C M.  Toxicity, silver accumulation and metallothionein induction in freshwater rainbow trout during exposure to different silver salts.  ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY vol. 15, no. 7, pp. 1102-1108, 1996.  Static-renewal 168-h toxicity tests of silver nitrate (AgNO sub(3)), silver chloride (AgCl sub(n)), and silver thiosulfate (Ag(S sub(2)O sub(3)) sub(n)) with juvenile rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) were performed by standard methods. Because of low solubility of AgCl(s), bioassays for AgCl sub(n) were performed in two separate ways. In one test series, AgCl(s) was added to freshwater and in another, AgCl sub(n)(aq) was generated by adding AgNO sub(3) to freshwater supplemented with 50 mM NaCl. Concentrations of Ag and metallothionein (MT) were analyzed in gills and livers of fish that survived the exposures. Although Ag added as AgNO sub(3) was found to be highly toxic to rainbow trout (168-h LC50 = 9.1 mu g Ag/L), the toxicities of the other Ag salts were low. The 168-h LC50 for Ag(S sub(2)O sub(3)) sub(n) was 137,000 mu g Ag/L and no mortality was observed in AgCl sub(n) (100,000 mu g Ag/L). Exposure to AgNO sub(3), Ag(S sub(2)O sub(3)) sub(n), or AgCl sub(n) caused accumulation of Ag and induction of MT. Highest Ag levels were found in livers of trout exposed to 164,000 mu g Ag/L as Ag(S sub(2)O sub(3)) sub(n). In these fish, the hepatic Ag concentration was increased 335 times from the control value. The MT levels in gills and liver increased with the water Ag concentration and the highest level of MT was found in liver of fish exposed to Ag(S sub(2)O sub(3)) sub(n).
#|Hogstrand, C., & Wood, C. M.  Toward a better understanding of the bioavailability, physiology, and toxicity of silver in fish: Implications for water quality criteria.  Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 17 (4). 1998.  547-561. In its ionic form, silver (Ag+) is highly toxic to fish (96-h 50% lethal concentration (LC50): low mu-g/L range). However, concentrations of Ag+ in aquatic environments are extremely low and other more common forms of silver show only low to moderate toxicities (e.g., 96-h LC50: silver thiosulfate gt 100,000 mu-g Ag/L; silver chlorides gt 100 mu-g Ag/L). In bioassays with freshwater fish, acute toxicity appears to be derived exclusively from the Ag+ ion concentration of the water. Some other forms of silver are bioavailable but do not show obvious contribution to acute toxicity. Complexation of Ag+ by chloride, dissolved organic carbon, and sulfide are important in reducing silver toxicity. The protective action of hardness (i.e. calcium) is modest. When added as the readily dissociating silver nitrate salt, the toxicity of silver is considerably lower in seawater (96-h LC50 range: 330-2,700 mu-g Ag/L) than in freshwater (96-h LC50 range: 5-70 mu-g Ag/L). Acute silver toxicity to fish is caused by failure of the organism to maintain constant Na+ and Cl- concentrations in the blood plasma. In freshwater fish, Ag+ exerts its toxic effects on the Na+ and Cl- transport across the gills, whereas the intestine has been indicated as the site of toxicity in seawater fish. Although there are still many gaps in our understanding of silver effects on fish, it can be concluded that present regulatory standards for silver can be much improved by taking into, account the important geochemical modifiers of silver toxicity.
#|HOLDWAY DA; BRENNAN SE; AHOKAS JT.  SHORT REVIEW OF SELECTED FISH BIOMARKERS OF XENOBIOTIC EXPOSURE WITH AN EXAMPLE USING FISH HEPATIC MIXED-FUNCTION OXIDASE.  AUSTRALIAN JOURNAL OF ECOLOGY, 1995, V20, N1 (MAR), P34-44.  One group of biological tools that are useful for monitoring exposure to xenobiotics (and hence water quality) have been collectively referred to as biomarkers and are defined in this paper as any biochemical, histological and/or physiological alterations or manifestations of stress. Biomarkers within an aquatic toxicological context generally represent biological responses of individual organisms to xenobiotic exposure (i.e. responses at the whole organism level of biological organization) These include among others, enzyme alterations, bile metabolites, RNA/DNA ratio, adenylate energy charge, skeletal abnormalities, immune dysfunction, behavioural changes and histopathological lesions. Biomarkers can act as effective early warning sentinels ro ensure the protection of the integrity of whole ecosystems, including freshwater.  This paper briefly reviews a selection of fish biomarkers of xenobiotic chemical exposure and marine ecosystems discusses their respective strengths and limitations for use in biomonitoring. An example of the the application oi fish mixed-function Oxidase (MFO) and cytochrome P-LSO as biomarkers of chemical exposure in Port Phillip Bay is provided it is concluded that judicious application oi biomarkers such as MFO in association with an understanding of the underlying causal mechanisms of induction and toxicity, will contribute to the successful prediction of biological effects of xenobiotic exposure on fish population health.
#|Holdway,-D.A.  Acute and sub-chronic toxicity of a pulp and paper mill effluent and a simulated deinking mill effluent (containing DTPA) to embryo and larval rainbowfish (Melanotaenia fluviatilis). AUSTRALAS.-J.-ECOTOXICOL. 1996  vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 17-26.  The acute and sub-chronic toxicity of pre-deinking treated effluent (PDE) from ANM-Albury and of simulated (pilot plant) deinking effluent (SDE) was assessed in a series of embryo-larval stage (ELS) experiments using native Murray River crimson-spotted rainbowfish (Melanotaenia fluviatilis). There was no mortality of 1-d-old larval rainbowfish after 48 h of exposure to 100% aerated PDE; mortality after 96 h (20%) was not significant relative to controls (32.5%). There was no deleterious effect on hatchability from PDE exposure (70 to 100% for controls versus 80 to 100% for 2.9%, 1:33 dilution, PDE exposed eggs). Cumulative larval mortality was not affected by PDE exposure in the embryo exposure experiments. There was no deleterious effect of PDE exposure on larval wet weight in either the embryo or larval exposure experiments. Exposure of 1-d-old larval rainbowfish to 100% un-aerated SDE for 24 h caused no mortality; subsequent 48 and 72 h mortality was confounded by low dissolved oxygen levels (< 3.0 mg/L) caused by the untreated simulated effluent BOD and thus was likely to be removed by secondary treatment. There were no deleterious mortality or wet weight effects on 1-d-old larval rainbowfish continuously exposed to up to 2.9% SDE for 14 days. There was no effect of SDE exposure up to 2.9% on hatchability of rainbowfish eggs. Cumulative larval mortality in the hatchability controls ranged from 20-25% compared with only 5% in 2.9% SDE exposed embryos. This research indicated that both PDE and SDE (which contained 113 mg/L of DTPA) effluents were non-toxic to native Murray River crimson-spotted rainbowfish at all dilutions tested and would not represent a serious toxicological risk to Murray River fish at the required minimum dilution of 80:1 or predicted future minimum dilution of 600:1 following on-site wastewater reuse.
#|Holmbom, B ; Harju, L ; Lindholm, J ; Groening, A L.  Effect of a pulp and paper mill on metal concentrations in the receiving lake system.  AQUA FENNICA vol. 24, no. 1, pp. 93-110, 1994.  So far little attention has been paid to the discharge of metals from pulp and paper mills. The discharge of metal ions with the effluent from the Kaukas pulp and paper mill into the south part of lake Saimaa was analysed. The mill effluent and waters at nine sites in the receiving lake system, one upstream and eight downstream of the mill, were sampled during two 4-5 week long periods. The concentrations of over 30 metal ions in the mill effluent and 12 metal ions in the lake water samples were analysed by graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry (GF-AAS), direct current plasma atomic emission spectrometry (DCP-AES) and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). The concentrations of most metal ions were relatively low in the mill effluent. However, the large effluent flow resulted in considerable discharge quantities of some metals, although not of toxic metals such as lead, mercury and cadmium. The effect of the mill on metal concentrations in the receiving lake downstream of the mill was most distinct for manganese and sodium. Elevated concentrations due to the effluent load were found also for zinc and chromium. The concentrations of these metals decreased with the distance from the mill outlet. This was mainly a result of dilution of waters in the receiving water area. More information is needed concerning metal contents in the pulp wood used by pulp and paper mills. The behaviour of metals in pulp and paper processes also needs more research.  Presently much research is conducted in the pulp and paper industry to find solutions that would enable closure of process water systems, which also include systems for recovery of metals.
#|Hontela, A ; Daniel, C ; Rasmussen, J B.  Structural and functional impairment of the hypothalamo-pituitary-interrenal axis in fish exposed to bleached kraft mill effluent in the St Maurice River, Quebec.  ECOTOXICOLOGY vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 1-12, 1997.  The effects of bleached kraft mill effluent (BKME) on blood cortisol levels and the morphology of the pituitary-interrenal axis were investigated in two species of teleost fish, the northern pike, Esox lucius, and the yellow perch, Perca flavescens, sampled upstream and downstream from a pulp and paper mill on the St Maurice River, Quebec. Fish were acutely stressed by a standardized capture and sampling protocol at both sites, and their ability to elevate blood cortisol levels in response to the capture stress was compared. Blood cortisol levels in fish from the upstream site (> 100 ng/ml plasma) were higher than the levels in fish from the BKME site, and the pituitary corticotropes and the interrenal steroidogenic cells of the upstream fish were larger and had larger nuclei compared with cells from the downstream fish. The low blood cortisol levels in fish exposed to BKME were correlated to cellular atrophy within the hypothalamo pituitary-interrenal (HPI) axis. The reduced ability to elevate blood cortisol in response to an acute stress may be an endocrine dysfunction occurring in fish chronically exposed to chemical stressors in their environment.
#|Horwath William R; Elliott Lloyd F; Steiner Jeffrey J; Davis Jennifer H; Griffith S M.  Denitrification in cultivated and noncultivated riparian areas of grass cropping systems. Journal of Environmental Quality  27 (1):p225-231 Jan.-Feb., 1998. The factors that affect denitrification of fertilizer N were determined in cultivated riparian (CR) soils cropped to perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.) and noncultivated naturally vegetated riparian soils (NCR) of poorly drained grass cropping systems in western Oregon. Denitrification activity in the NCR was low compared with the CR using the Acetylene Inhibition method. The CR soil denitrification activity was consistent over the growing season, averaging between 269 and 280 g N2O-N ha-1 d-1 during the measurement period depending on soil type. Denitrification activity was positively coffelated to soil NH4-N level in the CR. The greater denitrification activity of the CR likely reflects fertilizer applications in contrast to no fertilizer addition to the NCR. Nitrate-N levels in the CR averaged 5 to 1-2 times higher than those of the NCR. Nitrate did not appear to encroach from the CR into the NCR by subsurface water movement. The microbial biomass was four times larger in the NCR soils and may have functioned as a significant sink for N reducing denitrification activity. Multivariate factor analysis using orthogonal factor rotation showed that approximately 83% of the observed variance in denitrification was explained by grouping experimental variables by microbial activity, N2O-N emission, temperature, and nitrification. The grouping of soil variables was useful in explaining the importance of different soil processes in regulating denitrification. These denitrification activity data demonstrate the possibility for significant N losses, amounting to 12.5% of the applied fertilizer N, from poorly drained cropping systems.
#|Hosseinipour, E. Zia ; Neal, Larry A.  Stream Dissolved Oxygen Modeling and Wasteload Allocation.  Water Resources Engineering: Proceedings of the 1995 First International Conference on Water Resources Engineering: Texas Water '95: Volume 1, San Antonio, TX, August 14-18, 1995, p 516-520.  American Society of Civil Engineers.  Effluent discharges to receiving waters are regulated by National and State Environmental Protection Agencies.  To discharge treated effluent, industrial facilities must obtain a National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit that specifies discharge limits for specific chemical constituents on an individual basis. These limits depend on constituents type, receiving water flow regime and assimilative capacity, tolerance of aquatic species within the water body, background water quality, etc. This paper discusses water quality modeling in support of the NPDES permit application process.  Water quality management alternatives were analyzed with the aid of a water quality modeling package to project discharge limits based on flow regimes of the receiving waters, ambient water temperature, and the 5 day Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD5) of the discharge effluent. The goal was to determine the appropriate waste load allocations to meet the EPA guidelines for Best Practicable control Technology currently available (BPT) and protect the oxygen resources of the stream during critical conditions, while remaining cost effective.
#|Houck C P, Thornton R J, Brooks J, & Saunders J F III.  A model of alternative ways to meet dissolved oxygen standards.  Water Environment Research, 69 (5), 1997, 948-954. Existing in-stream dissolved oxygen (DO) standards in portions the South Platte River below Denver are not being met. In the summer, the river is effluent dominated and in-stream oxidation (nitrification of ammonia) is a significant cause of DO depletion. Facilities were installed to remove ammonia from a portion of treatment plant effluent; while improving water quality, these facilities did not solve the low DO problem. A sophisticated water quality model was used to investigate alternatives to traditional in-plant treatment. Extensive water quality, fisheries, and aquatic habitat data also were assembled, and a site-specific DO standard was proposed that protects aquatic life. Modeling indicated that, even if essentially complete ammonia removal were achieved, the DO problem would not be solved. Various combinations of stream reaeration, channel modifications, effluent diversion, and other techniques were examined with the model, and the six preferred alternatives were subjected to model evaluation for each of 4 summer months to meet both acute and chronic DO criteria. Capital and operation and maintenance costs were estimated, and a subjective risk and benefit evaluation was performed. Modeling and refinement of alternatives finally resulted in a recommended alternative involving installation of both passive and active in-stream reaeration structures that could potentially ave 25 to 65 million in capital costs, with substantial savings in annual operating costs as well.
#|House,-P.K.; Pearthree,-P.A.  A geomorphologic and hydrologic evaluation of an extraordinary flood discharge estimate: Bronco Creek, Arizona. WATER-RESOUR.-RES. 1995  vol. 31, no. 12, pp. 3059-3073.
#|Hughes, H E. From Superfund site to sportsmen's paradise.  LAND AND WATER vol. 40, no. 1, pp. 17-18, 1996.  First built around 1918 as a disposal containment area for copper ore mill tailings, Warm Springs Ponds consists of three separate holding facilities in the flood-plain of Silver Bow Creek in Southwestern Montana. Over a 65-year period, about 19 million cubic yards of metals-contaminated tailings, associated soils and precipitates had settled behind the site's three embankment dams, turning Warm Springs Ponds into a central part of the country's largest Superfund site. The migration of heavy metals into the surface flows of Silver Bow Creek created an environmental hazard for downstream residents and wildlife. Plus, the site's embankment dams did not meet current dam safety standards, and were in danger of breaching in the event of severe flooding or earthquakes. The property's owner, Atlantic Richfield Company, hired ESA Consultants Inc. to design a remediation plan that would bring the site into regulatory compliance. ESA's award-winning solution surpassed Superfund requirements, cost half as much as estimated in the EPA's Feasibility Study, kept all contaminants on-site, assured the safety of downstream residents, and improved the environment. The site is now open to sportsmen and area residents for year-round use.
#|Hughes, R. M.; Whittier, T. R.; Rohm, C. M.; Larsen, D. P. Regional Framework for Establishing Recovery Criteria. Environmental Management, v14 n5 p673-683 1990. Effective assessments of aquatic ecosystem recovery require ecologically sound endpoints against which progress can be measured. Site-by-site assessments of end points and potential recovery trajectories are impractical for water resource agencies. Because of the natural variation among ecosystems, applying a single set of criteria nationwide is not appropriate either. The article demonstrates the use of a regional framework for stratifying natural variation and for determining realistic biological criteria. A map of ecoregions, drawn from landscape characteristics, formed the framework for three statewide case studies and three separate studies at the river basin scale. Statewide studies of Arkansas, Ohio, and Oregon, USA, streams demonstrated patterns in fish assemblages corresponding to ecoregions. The river basin study in Oregon revealed a distinct change at the ecoregion boundary; those in Ohio and Montana demonstrated the value of regional reference sites for assessing recovery. Ecoregions can be used to facilitate the application of ecological theory and to set recovery criteria for various regions of states or of the country. Such a framework provides an important alternative between site-specific and national approaches for assessing recovery rates and conditions.
#|Hyman, T C ; Hamby, D M.  Parameter uncertainty and sensitivity in a liquid-effluent dose model.  ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT vol. 38, no. 1, pp. 51-65, 1995.  Radioactive materials which are released into streams on the Savannah River Site (SRS) eventually flow into the Savannah River. Tritium, super(90)Sr, super(137)Cs, and super(239)Pu account for the majority of the radiation dose received by users of the Savannah River.  This paper focuses on the dose uncertainties originating from variability in parameters describing the transport and uptake of these nuclides. Parameter sensitivity has also been determined for each liquid pathway exposure model. The models used here to estimate radiation dose to an exposed individual provide a range of possible dose estimates that span approximately one order of magnitude. A pathway analysis reveals that aquatic food and water consumption account for more than 95% of the total dose to an individual.
#|Hyne RV, & Everett DA. (1998). Application of a benthic amphipod, Corophium sp., as a sediment toxicity testing organism for both freshwater and estuarine systems.  ARCHIVES OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY, V34, N1, P26-33. The use of an as-yet-undescribed euryhaline Corophium sp. amphipod as a sediment toxicity testing organism was assessed. The species was found to be ubiquitous in many tidal areas of the Hawkesbury River catchment. The salinity of habitat sites ranged from 0.1 to 24 ppt, sediment total organic carbon (TOC) ranged from 0.4% to 3.5%, and the fines content (< 63 mu m particle size) of the sediment ranged from 4.3% to 47.6%, Monitored populations ranged from a density of 59 to 6622 individuals per m(2), with freshwater sites with a sediment fines content greater than 20% having the highest population densities. The sensitivity of the Corophium sp, was assessed by using copper chloride and ammonium chloride as reference toxicants in a 96-h static water-only test and a 10-day static sediment test. The LC50 for copper in freshwater-only exposures was 80 to 86 mu g/L, using adult animals collected from the field, In contrast, the LC50 for copper in freshwater sediment and the sediment pore water were 840 mg/kg (dry weight) and 99 mu g/L, respectively. The LC50 for ammonia (total) in freshwater-only at FH 7 was 5.5 mg/L. In contrast, the LC50 for ammonia (total) in freshwater sediment and the sediment pore water were 110 mg/kg (dry weight) and 6 mg/L, respectively. Laboratory cultures of 5 parts per thousand to 15 parts per thousand salinity were optimal for supporting the release of juveniles. Juveniles collected from laboratory cultures had a LC50 for copper in 5 parts per thousand and 10 parts per thousand salinity of 9 mu g/L and 28.5 mu g/L, respectively, in water-only exposures. The juveniles would he suitable for use in the development of a chronic sediment toxicity test with growth as the endpoint.
#|Hynes-HBN; Patrick-R; Ghetti-PF; Cairns-J Jr.; Conquest-LL; Stewart-AJ; Hughes-RM; Cummins-KW; Moyle-PB; Lenat-DR; Kratz-TK; Charles-DF; Paulsen-SG; Gurtz-ME; Karr-JR; Loeb-S; Spacie-A.  Biological monitoring of aquatic systems. 1994, 381 pp.  Lewis Publishers, CRC Press, Inc.; Boca Raton, Florida; USA .  This book contains 16 chapters and is divided into 6 sections: Introduction - an ecological context for biological monitoring (S.L. Loeb); Background and perspective - historical perspective and future direction of biological monitoring of aquatic systems (H.B.N. Hynes), what are the requirements for an effective biomonitor? (R. Patrick), European perspective on biological monitoring (P.F. Ghetti & O. Ravera); Experimental design - the statistical validity of biomonitoring data (J. Cairns, Jr. & E.P. Smith), implementation of large-scale stream monitoring efforts: sampling design and data analysis issues (L.L. Conquest et al.), spatial and temporal variation in biological monitoring data (A.J. Stewart & J.M. Loar), use of ecoregions in biological monitoring ( R.M. Hughes et al.); Community responses - bioassessment and analysis of functional organization of running water ecosystems (K.W. Cummins), biodiversity, biomonitoring and the structure of stream fish communities (P.B. Moyle), using benthic macroinvertebrate community structure for rapid, cost-effective, water quality monitoring: rapid bioassessment (D.R. Lenat & M.T. Barbour), landscape position, scaling and the spatial temporal variability of ecological parameters: considerations for biological monitoring (T.K. Kratz et al.), palaeoreconstruction of the environmental status of aquatic systems (D.F. Charles et al.); Program considerations - biological monitoring in the Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program (S.G. Paulsen & R.A. Linthurst), design considerations for biological components of the National Water-Quality Assessment (NAWQA) Program (M.E. Gurtz); and Conclusion - biological monitoring: challenges for the future (J.R. Karr).
#|Ince NH; Erdogdu G.  Toxicity screening, assessment, and reduction in an industrial wastewater treatment plant.  WATER ENVIRONMENT RESEARCH, 1998, V70, N6 (SEP-OCT), P 1170-1177.  WATER ENVIRONMENT FEDERATION, 601 WYTHE ST, ALEXANDRIA, VA., 22314-1994.  The toxicity reduction capacity of a central wastewater treatment plant (CWTP) receiving 21 000 metric ton/d of industrial wastewater was thoroughly investigated using a whole-effluent approach with a Microtox(TM) Toxicity Analyzer System. It was found that the highly toxic wastewater introduced into the CWTP was almost completely detoxified during secondary treatment with a recycled activated-sludge system. The removal mechanism was shown to be a combination of adsorption, volatilization, and biodegradation, the first two being more clear than the other. Fractionation of toxic streams within the treatment plant provided valuable information about the general characteristics of the toxicity-causing agents in the wastewater, namely that they were primarily composed of filterable and dissolved solids, volatile organics, and nitrogenous compounds. A toxicity reduction evaluation survey within the plant revealed that the observed Microtox(TM) toxicity could be readily removed by treatment with powdered activated carbon (PAC) and mechanical aeration at properly selected operating conditions. The correlation between toxicity removal and the applied PAC dose was found to be exponential and asymptotic to the ultimate effective toxicant concentration of the effluent. Reductions in chemical oxygen demand and dissolved organic carbon during PAC treatment were also related to the applied PAC dose and the initial concentrations of the parameter. Removal of volatile components of-toxicity by aeration was correlated with detention time by a power function.
#|Isaac R A, Gil L, Cooperman A N, Hulme K, Eddy B, Ruiz M, Jacobson K, Larson C, & Pancorbo O C.  Corrosion in drinking water distribution systems: A major contributor of copper and lead to wastewaters and effluents.  Environmental Science & Technology, 31 (11), 1997, 3198-3203. Corrosion, even in water supply systems with treatment to reduce it, can be a major contributor of copper and lead to both treated municipal (publicly owned treatment works, POTW) wastewater effluents and biosolids. Lead and copper concentrations were measured at several points in the water/wastewater systems of four Massachusetts municipalities. Domestic wastewater was found to contain concentrations of lead and copper significantly higher (p lt 0.05) than those in source waters. For each facility, the median concentration of Cu in domestic wastewater was a substantial fraction of the median concentration found in the influent to the POTWs with ratios of 0.36, 0.41, 0.65, and 1.25 for Gardner, New Bedford, Fall River, and Clinton, respectively. The values for lead, in the same order, were 0.28, 0.19, 0.17, and 0.69 (this last ratio based on mean values). Data from the study indicate that minimizing influent concentrations of Cu and Pb to POTWs is an important control factor since the finding of constant removal efficiency for these two constituents means that the higher their concentrations in the influent, the higher they will be in the effluent. These observations strongly support the concern that corrosive drinking water contributes substantially to exceeding, at a minimum, water quality criteria for copper, where dilution of wastewater effluents is low. In turn, this argues for corrosion reduction efforts in water supply systems and the means by which such controls are effected to consider impacts on wastewater as well, which generally is not now done.
#|Ismail, N.  Wastewater reuse for irrigation in arid regions.  Water for a changing global community. Proceedings of theme A - managing water:  coping with scarcity and abundance.  27th Congress of the International Association for Hydraulic Research, San Francisco, California, USA, 10-15 August 1997.  Conference Title:  Water for a changing global community. Proceedings of theme A - managing water:  coping with scarcity and abundance. 27th Congress of the International Association for Hydraulic Research, San Francisco, California, USA, 10-15 August 1997. p.296-30.  1997.  Editors:  English, M.  American Society of Civil Engineers New York.  Effluents discharged from natural waste water treatment plants in arid regions were tested against quality standards for irrigation with treated sewage water.  Data were collected from Jordan's Khirbet es Samra natural treatment plant which discharged into the Zerka River. Water quality parameters measured further downstream showed high organic/inorganic loads indicating insufficient microbial oxidation and possible unauthorized waste dumping. Data taken from the plant effluent compared reasonably well with similar plants in Saudi Arabia and U.S.A. and showed that treated waste water could be used for restricted irrigation. Further use for unrestricted irrigation could be permitted if operational management of oxidation ponds and receiving surface water were well controlled.
#|Iversen T M. Fish farming in Denmark: Environmental impact of regulative legislation. Water Science and Technology  31 (10):p73-84 1995.
#|Jain, C K.  Application of chemical mass balance to upstream/downstream river monitoring data.  JOURNAL OF HYDROLOGY (AMSTERDAM) vol. 182, no. 1-4, pp. 105-115, 1996.  The river Kali in western Uttar Pradesh (India) has been heavily influenced by the discharge of untreated municipal, agricultural, and industrial effluents. In the main channel of the river, the metal contamination was found to be three to four times the background level.  The concentration of iron, zinc, and copper was 0.41, 0.04, and 0.015 mg l super(-1), respectively, in the upstream section during October.  The same were 0.56, 0.07, and 0.016 mg l super(-1), during December.  Comparisons between upstream and downstream monitoring sites reveal changes in the concentration and/or load to the river and can be used to discriminate between point and non-point sources of pollution for these elements in the river. The resulting differential loadings, if adjusted for uncharacterized non-point contribution to the load, may represent the total point source load to the river minus any losses due to volatilization, settling, and/or degradation. Mass balance calculations conducted for iron, zinc, and copper indicated that additional inputs are needed to account for the observed differences in load along the river. The sources may include non-point sources of pollution due to agricultural activities, sediment remobilization or entrainment, groundwater intrusion or from a combination of these sources. The difference may also be attributed to some point sources of pollution which could not be identified in the course of investigations.
#|JANES N, PLAYLE RC.  MODELING SILVER-BINDING TO GILLS OF RAINBOW-TROUT (ONCORHYNCHUS-MYKISS).  ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY 14: (11) 1847-1858 NOV 1995.  Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss, 1-3 g) were exposed to similar to 0.1 mu M silver (Ag) (similar to 11 mu g . L(-1) Ag) for 2 to 3 h in synthetic soft water (Ca, Na similar to 300 mu M, PH 6.5-7.5) to which was added Ca, Na, H+, dissolved organic carbon (DOC), Cl, or thiosulfate (S2O3). Gills were extracted and gill Ag concentrations were measured using graphite-furnace atomic absorption spectrophotometry. The concentrations of cations (Ca, Na, H+) and complexing agents (DOC, Cl, S2O3) needed to keep Ag off the gills were used to calculate conditional equilibrium binding constants (K) at the gills. Log K for Ag-gill binding was 10.0, with approximately 1.3 nmol Ag binding sites per fish. All experimentally determined log K values were entered into an aquatic chemistry equilibrium model, MINEQL(+), to predict Ag binding at trout gills. For a series of natural waters, model-predicted gill Ag concentrations, correlated well withobserved gill Ag concentrations, with one exception, very hard city of Waterloo tapwater. This exception may indicate a kinetic constraint on the thermodynamic basis of the model.
#|JANES N; HOLLIS L; SIOCHOWICZ K; PLAYLE R.  EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE AND THIOSULPHATE ON UPTAKE OF SILVER BY RAINBOW TROUT ONCORHYNCHUS MYKISS.  TWENTY-THIRD ANNUAL AQUATIC TOXICITY WORKSHOP, CALGARY, ALBERTA, CANADA, OCTOBER 7-9, 1996.  CANADIAN TECHNICAL REPORT OF FISHERIES AND AQUATIC SCIENCES; 0 (2144). 1997. 168.  ONCORHYNCHUS-MYKISS RAINBOW TROUT FISH SILVER TOXIN UPTAKE TEMPERATURE THIOSULFATE COMPLEXING AGENT METABOLIC RATE BLOOD METABOLISM TOXICITY BLOOD AND LYMPHATICS.
#|Janssen, M P M ; Oosterhoff, C ; Heijmans, G J S M ; Van der Voet, H. The toxicity of metal salts and the population growth of the ciliate Colpoda cucculus.  BULLETIN OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY vol. 54, no. 4, pp.597-605, 1995.  Legislation to regulate the release of newly produced chemicals in the environment requires routine testing to avoid possible side effects on non target organisms. Such tests have been reasonably well developed for the aquatic environment (Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater, 1976). Screening procedures for the terrestrial environment are scarce and less advanced. A procedure in which colonization of protozoa in diluted percolate was used todetermine the risk at hazardous waste sites has been developed recently. Toxicity of compounds may differ considerably between taxonomic groups. Freshwater protozoa are more sensitive to certain compounds than representatives from other taxonomic groups, and considerable differences within protozoa have also been observed. It may be hypothesized that the same is also true for soil protozoa. Protozoa occur in high numbers in the litter layers where they play an important role in the regulation of microorganisms and in the recycling of organic material. The highest impact of air borne compounds can be expected in the upper soil layers. As protozoa are confined to soil pore water, effects of soluble compounds can be expected via uptake from the surrounding medium. In spite of their importance and their sensitivity, soil protozoa have, until now, been used in only a few toxicity tests. Metals occur in different chemical forms in the soil ecosystem, whereas in test systems often only a few well soluble compounds are used. A number of cases have been described in which the chemical form of the metal added resulted in different toxicity values. In an experiment conducted by Loka Bharati et al. (1990) the addition of acetate resulted in a change of inhibitory concentrations of lead and mercury to stimulatory effects for microorganisms.
#|Jardine,-J.J.; Van-Der-Kraak,-G.J.; Munkittrick,-K.R.  Capture and confinement stress in white sucker exposed to bleached kraft pulp mill effluent. ECOTOXICOL.-ENVIRON.-SAF. 1996  vol. 33, no. 3, pp. 287-298.  This study evaluates the effects of handling and confinement stress and a 3-day recovery period on a number of biochemical parameters used to monitor exposure of fish to bleached kraft mill effluent (BKME). Plasma was collected at four times of the day from male and female white sucker subjected to four levels of handling stress during their spawning migration at a BKME and a reference site. Indicators of a general response to stress (plasma cortisol, glucose, lactate, and total protein) and of reproductive fitness (plasma testosterone, 11-ketotestosterone, and 17 beta -estradiol) were measured. With the exception of 17 beta -estradiol in females, all of the parameters measured varied with time of day and stress level. The general stress indicators ranged from being highly to marginally responsive to handling and confinement stress and were inconsistent in terms of indicating a site difference. The reproductive steroids were moderately responsive to stress and gave the most consistent site difference with testosterone and 11-ketotestosterone levels reduced in BKME-exposed fish under low levels of stress. There was limited evidence for recovery from capture, handling, and transport in the spring for plasma cortisol, lactate, and 17 beta -estradiol at the BKME site, plasma glucose at the reference site, and plasma testosterone at both sites. Fish were also more responsive to an additional acute stress on Day 1 and Day 3 of recovery compared to that on Day 0. This study emphasizes the need for standardized methods in field collections and sampling with the least amount of stress possible, and suggests that holding white sucker for 1 or 3 days does not allow them to recover from the stress of capture.
#|Jeney, Z ; Valtonen, E T ; Jeney, G ; Jokinen, E I.  Effects of pulp and paper mill effluent (BKME) on physiology and biochemistry of the roach (Rutilus rutilus L.).  ARCHIVES OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY vol. 30, no. 4, pp.523-529, 1996.  The effects of bleached kraft pulp and paper mill effluent (BKME) on the roach (Rutilus rutilus L.) were studied under experimental and natural field conditions. In the acute experiment (72 h exposure to the concentrated BKME), the roach suffered from a general stress syndrome, characterized by a significant increase of cortisol and blood glucose, as well as a significant decrease of leucocrit and total plasma protein. In three weeks' exposure in a polluted and an unpolluted lake and in fish caught from the same lakes, the more specific effects of BKME treatments appeared. During the three weeks' exposure, slight hyperglycaemia as well as a decrease in a transaminase activity (GPT) and increase in the plasma total protein concentration of the fish occurred in the polluted lake. Fish caught from the polluted lake exhibited lower values of haematocrit, transaminases (GOT and GPT), and calcium concentration plus a higher chloride concentration in the plasma than in the unpolluted lake. The differential leukocyte counts also showed slight differences: Fewer lymphocytes and more granulocytes were found in roach from polluted waters. The morphology of the red blood cells in the roach from polluted lakes had more elongate erythrocytes with a longer major axis and a shorter minor axis than in fish from the polluted lake. The possibilities of determining the origin of fish based on their erythrocyte morphology is discussed.
#|Jenner H A. Janssen Mommen J P M.  DUCKWEED LEMNA-MINOR AS A TOOL FOR TESTING TOXICITY OF COAL RESIDUES AND POLLUTED SEDIMENTS.  Archives of Environmental Contamination & Toxicology 25 (1). 1993. 3-11. Duckweed, Lemna minor, was used for testing single elements and leachates of coal ashes and sediments by expressing growth as surface coverage. The EC50 for the elements Cd, Cu, Zn, As(III), As(V), Se(IV), Se(VI), SeO2 were 0.86, 2.2, 4.4, 8.4, 297, 21, 67, 37 .mu.M, respectively. Leachates were tested of pulverized coal fuel ash (PFA), including "low NOx" ashes, coal gasification slag (CGS), and, as a reference, the polluted sediments of a canal. The concentrations of elements in leachates of "low NOx" PFA were higher than those in leachates of conventional PFA. The leaching of anions from PFA was more quickly than the cations. CGS showed an absolutely minimal element leaching. Comparison of the effects of conventional PFA with sediments from Rotterdam harbor, River Rhine, and the canal shows PFA to be the far less toxic one. The sediment samples from the canal demonstrated strong growth inhibition, probably due to high zinc concentrations originating from industrial activity.
#|Johansen,-J.A.; Kennedy,-C.J.; Sweeting,-R.M.; Farrell,-A.P.; McKeown,-B.A. Sublethal effects of tetrachloroguaiacol on juvenile rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss, following acute and chronic exposure. CAN.-J.-FISH.-AQUAT.-SCI. 1994  vol. 51, no. 9, pp. 1967-1974.  Following either a 24-h (acute) or 25-d (chronic) exposure to tetrachloroguaiacol (TeCG), a component of bleached kraft mill effluent (BKME), juvenile rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss, were examined for effects on several biochemical parameters, swimming performance, and disease resistance. Acute exposure resulted in increased levels of plasma cortisol and lactate and reductions in liver glycogen and protein, spleen somatic index, leucocrit, hemoglobin, swimming performance, and disease resistance. Chronic exposure resulted in most parameters remaining at control levels with the exception of leucocrit which was elevated, plasma cortisol which decreased, and disease resistance which was impaired. These findings correlate well with a previously proposed classic stress response for mammals and are generally consistent with studies in which fish were exposed to whole BKME. The 96-h LC sub(50) for juvenile rainbow trout exposed to TeCG was estimated at 0.37 mg/L.
#|Johncox, D A. Silver concentrations and selected hydrologic data in the Upper Colorado River Basin, 1991-92.  1993. USGS Open-File Report: 93-447.  The U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the Colorado River Water Conservation District and the Northern Colorado Water Conservancy District, collected water and sediment samples in May and September 1991 and 1992 from nine stream-sampling sites and three lake-sampling sites within the Upper Colorado River Basin upstream from Kremmling, Colorado. Data were collected to determine the present (1992) conditions of the Upper Colorado River Basin regarding silver concentrations in the water and sediment. Lake-water and stream-water samples were analyzed for concentrations of total recoverable silver, dissolved silver, and suspended solids. Lake- and stream-bottom material was analyzed for concentrations of total recoverable silver.  Additional data collected were streamflow, specific conductance, pH, and water temperature. Transparency (Secchi-disk measurements) also was measured in the lakes.
#|Johnsen,-K.; Mattsson,-K.; Tana,-J.; Stuthridge,-T.R.; Hemming,-J.; Lehtinen,-K.J. Uptake and elimination of resin acids and physiological responses in rainbow trout exposed to total mill effluent from an integrated newsprint mill. ENVIRON.-TOXICOL.-CHEM. 1995  vol. 14, no. 9, pp. 1561-1568.  The effects of thermomechanical pulping effluents from an integrated newsprint mill were tested on rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Continuous-flow exposures under laboratory conditions were conducted at three dilutions (1:200, 1:400, and 1:1,000) for 8 weeks, followed by a 4-week recovery period. Sublethal effects were assessed using physiological and biochemical parameters including liver histology, hematology, serum biochemistry, and hepatic enzyme assays. Exposure was verified by analyzing water column, fish bile, and fish tissues for resin-acid concentrations. The effluent was found to be lethally toxic to rainbow trout within 3 to 4 weeks at a dilution of 1:200. Resin-acid concentrations in bile, muscle, gill, and liver showed a clear-cut positive dose response. However, relatively few responses and changes in the physiological parameters analyzed were found when comparing exposed and reference fishes. The small differences in physiological parameters between the reference group and an exposure group (1:400) after a 4-week recovery period show that the observed responses were reversible. It is noteworthy that the difference between the lowest acutely toxic concentration and the concentration at which only slight physiological responses occurred was very narrow for this effluent.
#|Johnson, Tom. Watching the Rivers Run.  Mining Voice  v1, n4, p34(5), Sep-Oct 95.  The Allegheny Mountains have a long history of coal mining activities. The region also supports a wide range of wildlife and wilderness areas. Although modern reclamation efforts have done much to reduce the impacts of mining on the natural beauty of the region, mining activities conducted during the first half of this century were destructive to the area. These older mines have been releasing large volumes of acid mine drainage (AMD) into the surrounding ecosystems. The chemical processes that lead to the formation of AMD are identified. The Cheat River, which flows through the Allegheny Mountains was recently classified as one of North America's 10 most endangered streams by American Rivers. Efforts aimed at alleviating these problems are detailed. Lime injection into AMD contaminated streams is one possible option.
#|Johnstone, D W M ; Horan, N J. Standards, costs and benefits: An international perspective.  J. INST. WATER ENVIRON. MANAGE. vol. 8, no. 5, pp. 450-458, 1994.  This paper considers the development of standards for the discharge of wastewaters from the perspectives of (a) the developed world, (b) the developing world, and (c) the newly industrializing nations. It considers the potential environmental benefits which can be obtained by the imposition of stringent effluent standards, and weights this against the economic costs of meeting such standards. By means of case studies it considers how inappropriate standards can often arise in other countries of the world and how the imposition of unjustifiably high standards can be demoralizing, costly, and produce no environmental improvements. Finally, it considers how a more pragmatic approach to the setting of standards, especially in the newly industrializing and developing nations, place them in context of applicability, affordability, regulation and enforcement.
#|Jokinen, E I ; Aaltonen, T M ; Valtonen, E T.  Subchronic effects of pulp and paper mill effluents on the immunoglobulin synthesis of roach, Rutilus rutilus.  ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY vol. 32, no. 3, pp. 215-225, 1995.  Roach (Rutilus rutilus), from a unpolluted lake, were caged in a lake receiving treated waste waters from a pulp and paper mill 16 km upstream, and simultaneously a group of fish were held in cages in the unpolluted reference lake. The level of serum immunoglobulin of the fish kept in cages in these lakes was quantified. Serum immunoglobulin levels decreased when the fish were transferred to the contaminated lake and remained significantly reduced for the 8-week period fish were monitored. In another experiment fish were immunized with bovine gamma -globulin (BGG) after 5 weeks caging in the lakes. The kinetics of specific antibody synthesis were determined by assaying the number of antibody secreting cells in the spleen using enzyme-linked immunospot assay and by measuring the concentration of specific antibody in the serum. The peak response of the effluent exposed fish against BGG was lower than that for fish kept in the unpolluted reference lake, and the antibody titers, due to immunization, increased more slowly in the exposed fish. These results demonstrate that subchronic exposure of fish in a lake receiving treated waste wasters from a bleached kraft mill affects the antibody-mediated immunity resulting in, besides lower levels of Ig, weak responsiveness against antigen.
#|Jop, K. M., Askew, A. M., & Foster, R. B.  (1995).  Development of a water-effect ratio for copper, cadmium, and lead for the Great Works River in Maine using Ceriodaphnia dubia and Salvelinus fontinalis.  Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology v 54 n 1, p 29-35. The development of water-effect ratios for cadmium, copper, and lead is described. These ratios are used to derive site-specific water quality criteria for process water discharged from a metal finishing plant. Process water at this facility is treated in the secondary treatment system and discharged to the Great Works River.
#|JUNG, KEUMHEE.  DEVELOPMENT OF SHORT-TERM BIOASSAYS FOR TOXICITY TESTING IN AQUATIC ENVIRONMENTS (INDUSTRIAL EFFLUENTS, CERIODAPHNIA DUBIA).  PH.D., 1995.  UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA.  The purposes of this study were to develop microbial and enzymatic assays for detecting heavy metal toxicity in aquatic samples, and to evaluate the usefulness of the 1-h Ceriodaphnia dubia bioassay as a screening and acute toxicity testing of environmental samples. A bacterial bioassay based on inhibition of $\beta$-galactosidase activity in a mutant strain Escherichia coli and an enzymatic assay based on inhibition of urease activity were developed for detecting heavy metal toxicity in environmental samples. The 1-h acute Ceriodaphnia dubia bioassay was modified and compared to the standard bioassay, using pure compounds and water samples collected from various industries in Florida. This study showed that bioassays based on inhibition of $\beta$-galactosidase and urease were specific for heavy metals but insensitive to organic compounds at concentrations which greatly exceed those found in the environment. These microbial and enzymatic bioassays were as sensitive as the standard daphnid bioassay and more sensitive than the Microtox$\sp\circler$ assay for detecting heavy metal toxicity. The bioassays were applied to industrial effluents and process water samples in conjunction with the general toxicity tests such as Microtox$\sp\circler$ and the standard 48-h Ceriodaphnia dubia acute bioassay to distinguish between heavy metal toxicity and organic chemical toxicity. The bioassays were shown to be sensitive to samples which contained heavy metals andshowed a good correlation with the 48-h daphnid acute bioassay. When these two heavy metal toxicity tests were used to evaluate heavy metal toxicity in environmental samples, more accurate results could be obtained. Therefore, the microbial and enzymatic toxicity tests can serve as rapid screening tests for detecting heavy metal toxicity and offer a convenient tool for toxicant characterization in wastewater fractionation in phase I of Toxicity Reduction Evaluation (TRE). The 1-h acute daphnid toxicity bioassay has been developed by using inhibition of feeding behavior as the test endpoint. The test was modified by using nontoxic fluorescent dye-stained bacterial food in order to reduce observation time and cost. The 1-h acute Ceriodaphnia dubia feeding activity suppression test (CerioFAST$\sp{\rm TM})$ was comparable to the standard daphnid bioassay and showed several advantages over the standard daphnid bioassay such as simplicity, low cost, and rapidity. The developed 1-h daphnid bioassay detected general toxicity in industrial effluents and process water samples and showed a strong correlation with the standard 48-h daphnid bioassay. Therefore, the 1-h Ceriodaphnia dubia bioassay can be used as a screening test, range-finding test, or acute toxicity test in environmental samples. The short-term microbial and enzymatic bioassays and 1-h Ceriodaphnia dubia bioassay can be conveniently used for detecting either heavy metal or general toxicity in environmental samples and can be included in a battery of tests approach for potential problem sites.
#|Karmarkar, S V.  Optimized ion chromatography for rapid determination of chloride, nitrate, phosphate, and sulfate in discharge waters.  AMERICAN ENVIRONMENTAL LABORATORY vol. 8, no. 8, pp. 1-6, 1996.  Over the last 20 years, ion chromatography (IC) has become a well-accepted technique for the determination of anions, cations, organic acids, and metals. U.S. EPA Method 300.0 has been approved for the determination of bromide, chloride, fluoride, nitrate, nitrite, phosphate, and sulfate in drinking water under national interim primary drinking water regulations (NIPDWR) compliance monitoring. The method is expected to be approved shortly for national pollution discharge elimination system (NPDES) compliance monitoring. A typical chromatogram for these seven anions takes about 8-10 min. Of these seven anions found in effluent waters, only chloride, nitrate, phosphate, and sulfate are present in appreciable amounts. When determining only these four anions, conventional IC is unnecessarily slow because of a throughput of about 6-8 samples per hr. A chemically suppressed, rapid IC method is specifically optimized for these four anions with an elution time of 3 min and a throughput of 20 samples/hr. The method provides baseline resolution for the adjacent anion peaks. A small suppressor column was designed that has suppression capacity for processing one sample. It is fully regenerated using a 10-port valve while the next sample is being loaded into the sample loop of a 6-port injection valve. The method was applied to the determination of the four anions in effluent samples.
#|Karuppiah, Makesh; Gupta, Gian. Impact of Point and Nonpoint Source Pollution on Pore Waters of Two Chesapeake Bay Tributaries.  Ecotoxicol Environ Saf  v35, n1, p81(5) Oct 96. The Wicomico and Pocomoke Rivers are two Chesapeake Bay tributaries on the Eastern Shore of Maryland. Wicomico River is impacted by effluents from a sewage-treatment plant, whereas Pocomoke River is surrounded by mostly agricultural lands. Pore water samples were collected from different sites in the two rivers, and the impact of point and nonpoint sources of pollution was examined. Toxicity of the pore waters was evaluated using the Microtox marine luminescent bacteria Vibrio fischeri.  Toxicity of Wicomico River pore water was found to be highest adjacent to the sewage-treatment plant, while that of the Pocomoke River was highest near a poultry production plant. Results from EPA Toxicity Identification Evaluation showed that toxicity was due to ammonia and heavy metals from the sewage-treatment plant and to metals, pesticides, and PCBs from nonpoint sources in the Pocomoke River.
#|Kaur, A ; Kaur, K.  Relative susceptibility of different life stages of Channa punctatus and Cyprinus carpio to nickel-chrome electroplating effluent.  BULLETIN OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY vol. 57, no. 5, pp., 836-841, 1996.  The heavy load of various industrial pollutants in the aquatic environment poses a serious threat to the biota living therein. For setting up standards for the safe disposal of such wastes, bioassay studies are used to determine their minimum concentration that kills fish in a particular period. Although toxicity of a pollutant depends upon the water characteristics and fish type, experimental standards are still useful in the conservation of fish populations in rivers. Furthermore the response of a species to a compound may be influenced by developmental stage and size of the test organism (Kondal et al.  1984 Kaur and Dhawan 1994). The present paper is aimed at investigating the LC sub(50), acute toxicity ranges, safe concentrations, and relative susceptibility of three life stages (fry, fingerling and adult) of fresh water teleosts, Channa punctatus and Cyprinus carpio to nickel-chrome electroplating effluent.
#|Kearns, D. Sample data checks effluent quality.  ENVIRON. PROT  VOL. 4, NO. 9, pp. 50-53, 1993. The Discharge Monitoring Report, an analysis burden for industry, provides EPA with information needed to prescribe control methods for wastewater pollutants.
#|Keeler, A G ; McLemore, D.  The value of incorporating bioindicators in economic approaches to water pollution control.  ECOLOGICAL ECONOMICS vol. 19, no. 3, pp. 237-245, 1996.  Bioindicators provide better information about environmental quality than chemical and physical measures alone. This paper addresses how this information can improve the efficiency of water pollution control policy. We model bioindicators as a means of resolving uncertainty about the relationship of human activities and environmental effects. Two economic policy models are developed to formalize efficiency gains that result from biological information. We find that resolving uncertainty is valuable in both a benefit-cost framework and in implementing an exogenously-determined safety standard. The results imply that ecological research capable of providing this kind of information can have a direct economic payoff.
#|Keith, Anthony J. Effects of disturbance on the trophic structure of an ephemeral California stream. 1995.  San Francisco State University. Masters Theses Collection - Degree in Biology.
#|Keller,-A.-E.  Acute Toxicity of Several Pesticides, Organic Compounds, and a Wastewater Effluent of the Freshwater Mussels, Anodonta imbecilis, Ceriodaphnia dubia, and Pimephales promelas. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology BECTA6, Vol. 51, No. 5, p 696-702, November 1993. Protection of endangered species may someday go as far as establishment of restricted areas for prohibition of pesticides usage. Many species of freshwater (unionid) mussels have been listed as endangered or are being considered for listing, so it is important to assess the impact of pesticides, herbicides and other organic pollutants on these sensitive species. The acute toxicity of several pesticides, organic compounds and an organic effluent was determined for juvenile Anodonta imbecilis mussels. The sensitivity of A. imbecilis was compared to common test organisms such as Daphnia magna, Ceriodaphnia dubia and Pimephales promelas, the fathead minnow. The toxic effects due to the presence or absence of sediment were compared in studies with toxaphene and chlordane in A. imbecilis. A group of eight organic compounds including methanol, acetone, sodium dodecylsulfate, hydrothol, ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid, pentachlorophenol (PCP), chlordane and toxaphene were chosen for acute toxicity studies. Forty-eight hour LC50s for A. imbecilis exposed to effluent concentrations of a single organic toxic component showed that the least toxic of these compounds was methanol and the most toxic was PCP. A study of a Jacksonville, Florida wastewater treatment facility effluent proved A. imbecilis less sensitive than C. dubia; and much less sensitive than P. promelas, which all died within 24 h in the lowest effluent concentrations. Sediment-sorption of chlordane and toxaphene seems to play an important role in survival rate of A. imbecilis in the studies with or without sediment in the chamber. Since A. imbecilis was found to be no more sensitive to the tested organic pollutants after a 48-h exposure than D. magna, mussels may be adequately protected by current water quality standards
#|Kemeny, T E ; Banerjee, S. Correlations among contaminant profiles in mill process streams and effluents.  ENVIRONMENTAL FATE AND EFFECTS OF PULP AND PAPER MILL EFFLUENTS.  Servos, M R ; Munkittrick, K R ; Carey, J H ; van der Kraak, G J  (eds ).  pp. 151-158, 1996.  International Conference on Environmental Fate and Effects of Bleached Pulp Mill Effluents: Vancouver, British Columbia (Canada), 1994 Nov 6-10.  ST. LUCIE PRESS: DELRAY BEACH, FL.  Two intensive monitoring studies conducted at the Georgia-Pacific facilities at Leaf River, MS and Brunswick, GA showed the absence (within the limits of detection) of TCDD/F, trisubstituted and higher chlorophenols, and acrolein in any of the process sewers.  The eighteen sampling episodes conducted at Leaf River allowed correlations to be drawn among the various contaminant profiles. For example, there was a strong BOD-COD relationship in the pulp mill sewer, suggesting that the carbon in the pulp mill sewer (or a fixed fraction thereof) is biodegradable. Also, AOX and COD in the final effluent were strongly correlated, suggesting that variations in each parameter were governed by process changes.
#|Kennedy,-C.J.; Sweeting,-R.M.; Johansen,-J.A.; Farrell,-A.P.; McKeown,-B.A.  Lethal and sublethal effects of chlorinated resin acids and chloroguaiacols in rainbow trout. ENVIRONMENTAL FATE AND EFFECTS OF PULP AND PAPER MILL EFFLUENTS. Servos,-M.R.; Munkittrick,-K.R.; Carey,-J.H.; van-der-Kraak,-G.J. (eds.)  DELRAY BEACH, FL 33483 (USA)  ST. LUCIE PRESS.1996 pp. 391-400. Resin acids and guaiacols are common constituents in pulp mill effluent and are considered to contribute the greatest effect to the acute toxic actions of mill discharge to fish. The objectives of this study were to examine the sublethal toxicity of 14-monochlorodehydroabietic acid (MCDHAA), 12,14-dichlorodehydroabietic acid (DCDHAA) and 3,4,5,6-tetrachloroguaiacol (TeCG) to rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss. A biological indicator approach was used involving a suite of indicators which spanned several levels of biological complexity, as well as having ecological relevance. These included biochemical responses and effects on swimming performance and disease resistance. The experimentally determined 96-h LC50 values for juvenile rainbow trout were 0.37, 1.1 and 0.9 mg/L for TeCG, MCDHAA and DCDHAA, respectively. Using these values as a guideline, sublethal exposure to each chemical for 24 h resulted in a classical stress response and included significant primary (secretion of corticosteroids), secondary (hyperlacticemia, hyperglycemia) and tertiary (reduced swimming performance and lowered disease resistance) effects. Chronic exposure of fish to TeCG for 25 d resulted in most parameters being at control levels with the exception of leucocrit which was elevated, cortisol which was depressed, and disease resistance which remained impaired. This study indicates that the selected parameters may be useful indicators of acute exposure to pulp mill effluent; however, under chronic exposure conditions only disease resistance was a reliable indicator of persistent toxicant exposure.
#|Kerans, B L ; Karr, J R.  A benthic index of biotic integrity (B-IBI) for rivers of the Tennessee Valley.  ECOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS vol. 4, no. 4, pp. 768-785, 1994.  Invertebrate data from rivers in the Tennessee Valley were used to: (1) evaluate the utility of 18 characteristics of invertebrate assemblages (attributes) to assess the biological condition of streams and (2) develop a comprehensive benthic invertebrate index that reflects important aspects of stream biology and responds to the effects of human society in detectable ways. We used data from the Tennessee Valley Authority's (TVA) fixed-station monitoring program established in 1986 to evaluate water resources in the Tennessee Valley. The streams covered sites with various types and levels of human disturbance. TVA biologists sampled riffles and pools using quantitative methods. To evaluate attributes we determined (1) the ability of each attribute to distinguish among sites (analyses of variance), (2) the associations among attributes (correlation coefficients), (3) the concordance of assessments of sites using each attribute with two independent site assessments (water quality and analysis of fish assemblages based on the index of biotic integrity), and (4) the variability of each attribute across habitats (riffles and pools) and ecoregions. Thirteen attributes (total taxa richness and taxa richnesses of intolerant snails and mussels, mayflies, caddisflies, and stoneflies relative abundances of Corbicula, oligochaetes, omnivores, filterers, grazers, and predators dominance total abundance) were valuable in discriminating sites, exhibited concordance with other methods of assessment, and were relatively uncorrelated among themselves. Five attributes (sediment-surface taxa richness relative abundances of shredders, gatherers, detritivores, and chironomids) were not acceptable for inclusion in the index because they either were not in concordance with other methods of assessment or were strongly correlated with other attributes. Based on the results of this evaluation, 13 attributes were included in a benthic index of biotic integrity (B-IBI). The B-IBI was evaluated using a more extensive fixed-station data set and was tested using an independent data set where samples were taken above and below the release of an industrial effluent to the North Fork Holston River. The fixed-station sites were correctly ranked, although rankings were not always consistent for pool and riffle habitats. B-IBI also distinguished the industrial impact. The B-IBI has potential as an assessment tool for streams, although more testing and evaluation of both the attributes and the index are warranted.
#|KERCHER, MICHAEL DARWIN.  AN EVALUATION OF WHOLE EFFLUENT TOXICITY (WET) TESTING FOR MONITORING TOXICITY AT A URANIUM GASEOUS DIFFUSION PLANT (KENTUCKY, BIOASSAYS, CERIODAPHNIA DUBIA, PIMEPHALES PROMELAS).  PH.D. 1997. UNIVERSITY OF KENTUCKY.  An integrated biomonitoring study was conducted on Big Bayou and Little Bayou Creeks in Western Kentucky which were impacted by effluents from a uranium enrichment plant. Although other chemicals were detected, metals (e.g. aluminum, cadmium, copper, chromium, iron, nickel, lead and zinc) predominated throughout and downstream of the effluent receiving zone. During the initial two years of study (1987-88) generally stable, low-flow conditions prevailed, followed by two years of above average rainfall. Affluent and receiving stream toxicity was assessed using short-chronic procedures with Ceriodaphnia dubia and the fathead minnow, Pimephales promelas. In effluents, moderate but significant toxicity was observed in 28 of 69 tests (41%) with C. dubia and in 31 of 59 tests (53%) with the fathead minnow, totaling 59 of 128 tests (46%) performed. Significant effluent toxicity was detected in 6% and 61% of tests conducted with C. dubia and the fathead minnow, respectively. In addition, fish and macroinvertebrate communities in the receiving stream were sampled and evaluated. During 1987-88, macroinvertebrate communities within the effluent-receiving zone of the stream system sustained up to a 72% reduction in mean density and a 22% decrease in species richness. However, during 1989-90, ecological recovery was observed in the effluent receiving zone. Mean concentrations of individual metals sometimes exceeded, but usually were below U.S. EPA freshwater criteria for chronic effects on aquatic life and, individually, did not explain the degree of toxicological and ecological impact. Therefore, a criterion-based additive model was assessed for (1) quantifying combined metal loading of suites of metals on surface water systems and (2) developing cumulative criterion units (CCUs) for use as supplemental, site-specific metal standards for regulating water quality. Concentrations of CCUs and individual metals (i.e. Cu) correlated inversely with density, abundance and bioassessment scores for macroinvertebrates, and no consistent correlation was observed with toxicity. It was concluded that NPDES short-chronic tests were insufficiently sensitive to consistently predict instream chronic effects on the more sensitive macroinvertebrate taxa. In addition, the fathead minnow embryolarval procedure was decidedly more reliable for detecting effluent toxicity traceable to metals or metal mixtures.
#|KERR DR; MEADOR JP.  MODELING DOSE-RESPONSE USING GENERALIZED LINEAR-MODELS. VIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY, 1996, V15, N3, P395-401.  This paper describes a method to determine and model dose-response relationships from binomial response data using generalized linear models (GLM). The main advantage of this technique is that it allows LC(p) or LD(p) to be determined without an initial linearizing transformation. (LC(p) and LD(p) are the lethal concentration or dose that causes p proportion of test animals to die at a specified time period.) Thus, the method of GLM is an appropriate way to analyze a dose-response relationship because it utilizes the inherent S-shaped feature of the toxicologic response and incorporates the sample size of each trial in parameter estimation. This method is also much better behaved when the extremes of the response probability are considered because responses of 0% and 100% are included in the model. Another advantageous feature of this method is that confidence intervals (C.I.s) for both the dose estimate and response probabilities can be computed with GLM, which provides a more complete description of the estimates and their inherent uncertainty. Because C.I.s for both the dose estimate and response probabilities can be constructed, the lowest observed effect concentration (LOEC) can also be determined.  Acute toxicity; developing site-specific water quality; criteria for copper.
#|Khamar, I S.  Evaluation of water quality of the Western Bug and Dniester Rivers in terms of rosette diagrams.  HYDROBIOLOGICAL JOURNAL vol. 31, no. 3, pp. 70-75, 1995. A modification of Grib's rosette diagram (1991) consisting of five concentric circles, marking the boundaries of ecological water classes and nine equally spaced radial lines is described. The radial lines represent the values of characteristics for which sanitary-ecological standards have been set dissolved oxygen, chloride, sulfate, ammonia, nitrite, nitrate, iron, petroleum products, and BOD sub(5). The diagram is used to classify the water of the Western Bug and Dniester rivers. The water quality is strongly influenced by industrial effluent and the results are consistent with saprobicity values established by means of phytomicrobenthos indicator species.
#|KHOSLA MR; HEATH AG; ANGERMEIER PL.  ASSESSING WATER-QUALITY - INTERDISCIPLINARY PROBLEMS AND APPROACHES.  INTERDISCIPLINARY SCIENCE REVIEWS, 1995, V20, N3 (SEP), P229-240.  Impairment of numerous water resources by anthropogenic stress has caused degradation, which reduces their ecological integrity, a combination of physicochemical and biological integrity. Techniques to assess impairment may be broadly divided into physicochemical, biological, and habitat assessments. Most physicochemical analyses are conducted in the laboratory. Biological techniques are divided into field measurements such as population and community level approaches using indigenous organisms as indicators of stress and laboratory measurements such as toxicology, which generally use field collected or laboratory raised animals to assess pollution effects on individual organisms. Impacted sites are compared with relatively unimpacted sites to estimate damage. While physicochemical and toxicological approaches have been largely standardised and are widely used, suitable protocols for field based bioassessments are relatively new, often not standardised, and not widely used. Since each approach provides unique information on water quality, integration of available methods is critical in providing a battery of assessment techniques to act as appropriate precursors to remedial action that may lead to recovery.
#|Kiffney P M, & Clements W H.  Size-dependent response of macroinvertebrates to metals in experimental streams.  Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 15 (8),1996.  1352-1356. Our previous research has shown that the effects of metals on stream benthic invertebrate populations and communities can vary within and between locations. With this in mind, we examined whether invertebrate body size could explain some of the variation in metal sensitivity within a species. Benthic macroinvertebrates from a pristine Rocky Mountain foothills' stream were collected using artificial substrates and exposed to a mixture of Cd, Cu, and Zn in stream microcosms for 10 d at their respective Colorado chronic criterion levels (4.0, 5.0, and 50 mu-g/L). The effects of metals on the ephemeropterans Baetis tricaudatus (Baetidae), Ephemerella infrequens (Ephemerellidae), and Rhithrogena hageni (Heptageniidae) and the plecopteran Pteronarcella badia (Pteronarcyidae) were size dependent, as there was an inverse relationship between body size and survivorship. These results may have important implications for setting water-quality criteria for metals and for using benthic invertebrates in biological assessments.
#|Kim-Kyung-sub.  Development, application and analysis of the physical aspects of a water-quality modeling framework for highly transient streams. 1993.  Doctoral thesis.  University of Colorado. Boulder, CO.
#|Kircher, T.P.; Tallon, J.T. Achieving zero discharge.  POLLUT. PREV. REV VOL. 4, NO. 4, pp. 371-385, 1994. Industrial process waters and stormwater runoff are attracting greater regulatory attention. Tomeet the increasingly stringent regulatory requirements, industry will need to develop innovative solutions. This article describes how ASHTA Chemicals, Inc. responded to the challenge of facility-wide water management by designing a "zero discharge" system at its principal manufacturing site.
#|Kizlauskas, A. E., & Gerath, M. E. A. M.  1996.  What the GLI Means to Dischargers.  Pollut Eng v28, n1, p72(2). On March 23, 1995, the water quality guidance created under the Great Lakes Initiative (GLI) was made into law. Industry pundits have been watching the progress of the GLI quite closely. Many consider the GLI to be one of the most important pieces of water toxics legislation being developed at present. The GLI has already established a number of regulatory precedents that are expected to serve as models around the nation. An overview of how the GLI will affect dischargers is presented. Although the GLI may allow state and regulatory agencies to tighten their water toxics requirements even further, it also contains several provisions that are beneficial to industry. The final law provides greater flexibility and less stringent mercury standards for wildlife protection.
#|Klaine, S.J.; Bills, T.L.; Wenholz, M.D.; La Point, T.W.; Cobb, G.P.  Influence of age sensitivity on the acute toxicity of silver to fathead minnows at various water quality parameters.  Forsythe, B.L.,II; Andren, A.W.; Bober, T.W. (eds.)  Int. Conf. Transport, Fate and Effects of Silver in the Environment.  Madison, WI (USA)  25-28 Aug 1996, pp. 125-130,  1996.  The data to adequately characterize silver toxicity to freshwater fish for a variety of water quality conditions are lacking or poorly developed.  Current attempts to extrapolate existing data sets to many sites result in extremely low silver limits. The error associated with this extrapolation is not well characterized; these silver limits may be underprotective or overprotective.  Work described earlier provided a response for 4-day old fathead minnows at varying water qualities. These LC50 values for 4-d old fish were found to be significantly lower than those reported in the literature for older fish (Davies et al., 1978; Goettl and Davies, 1978; Lemke, 1980; Nebeker et al., 1983). Thus, it is the objective of this study to generate a silver (AgNO sub(3)) toxicity data set for 28-day old fathead minnows, Pimephales promelas, that accounts for variations in water quality parameters such as chloride, hardness, and dissolved organic carbon.  Fathead minnow larvae, Pimephales promelas, (24-days old) were purchased and inspected for viability upon receipt, from Charles River-ARO (Hampton, NH).  An acute (96-hour), static non-renewal test was conducted with juvenile fathead minnows (28-d old) at 22 degree C plus or minus 1 degree C with a 16-hr. light (10-20 mu E/m super(2)/s):8-hr. dark cycle. Hardness as CaCO sub(3) (50 mg/L) and alkalinity (100 mg/L) were the same for all treatments.  Mean alkalinity, hardness, and pH was 107 mg/L, 52 mg/L, and 8.26 respectively. Dissolved oxygen averaged 8.0 mg/L and never fell below 4.7 mg/L.  The effects of two different water quality parameters on acute silver toxicity were examined. Chloride (3, 20, 40, and 60 mg/L) and humic acid (0, 5, and 10 mg/L) were used in conjunction with the six concentrations of silver (0, 2, 5, 10, 30, and 60 mu g/L) in a complete factorial design. This results in a total of 72 treatments. Each treatment had three replicates containing 10 fish each.
#|KLINE ER, FIGUEROA RA, RODGERS JH, & DORN PB. (1996). EFFECTS OF A NONIONIC SURFACTANT (C-14-15 AE-7) ON FISH SURVIVAL, GROWTH AND REPRODUCTION IN THE LABORATORY AND IN OUTDOOR STREAM MESOCOSMS.  ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY,V15, N6, P997-1002. The effects of a nonionic surfactant (C-14-15 AE-7) on survival and growth of juvenile bluegill sunfish and on survival and reproduction of fathead minnows were investigated in the laboratory and in outdoor stream mesocosms. In the laboratory, where the fish were exposed for 10 d, the 96-h LC50 values for bluegill sunfish and fathead minnows were 650 and 770 mu g/L, respectively. The no-observed-effect concentration (NOEC) for survival and swimming performance of bluegill sunfish and for survival of fathead minnows was 160 mu g/L. The lowest-observed-effect concentration (LOEC) for these toxic responses was 460 mu g/L. In the stream mesocosms, where the fish were exposed for 30 d, the NOEC for bluegill sunfish survival and growth was >330 mu g/L. The LOEC for fathead minnow survival was 330 mu g/L, and the NOEC was 280 mu g/L. Decreased egg laying by fathead minnows was noted in the streams at concentrations of 330 mu g/L or greater. Close correspondence between the results of laboratory tests and those obtained under field conditions in the mesocosms indicates that for this surfactant, it may not be necessary to apply ''safety factors'' to extrapolate results from the laboratory to the field.
#|Klink, F J. An alternative approach to achieve a clean River Meuse. REHABILITATION OF THE RIVER RHINE. Van de Kraats, J A (ed ). WATER SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY vol. 29, no. 3 pp. 121-123, 1994.  International Conference on Rehabilitation of the River Rhine.  Arnhem (Netherlands), 1993 Mar 15-19.  ELSEVIER SCIENCE.  TARRYTOWN, NY.  The municipality of Rotterdam and two regional drinking-water companies jointly started an action programme in an attempt to reduce the sources of pollution in consultation with the dischargers. Rotterdam aims to reach written agreements with each relevant discharger in which the discharger is committed to reduce his discharge in order to improve the Meuse water quality. In exchange Rotterdam relinquishes legal claims upon the discharger. Results of the measured discharges are presented. The 8 major dischargers of Br, Cd, NH sub(4) and P each contribute up to 79% of the total contaminant discharge into the Meuse.
#|Kloepper Sams, P J ; Benton, E.  Exposure of fish to biologically treated bleached-kraft effluent. 2. Induction of hepatic cytochrome P4501A in mountain whitefish (Prosopium williamsoni) and other species.  ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY vol. 13, no. 9, pp., 1483-1496, 1994.  Induction of the hepatic detoxification enzyme cytochrome P4501A has been observed in fish exposed to bleached-kraft mill effluents (BKME). P4501A content was examined in three species of wild fish exposed to BKME in an Alberta Canadian river as part of an extensive program that included chemical monitoring, fish population studies, and other fish biochemical and physiological measurements. The Rocky Mountain whitefish Prosopium williamsoni exhibited marked induction of P4501A compared to reference whitefish, as measured by both catalyticactivity and immunoreactive protein content. Similar P4501A induction was observed 4 d after reference fish were treated with 20 mg/kg beta -naphthoflavone. Whitefish P4501A levels have declined from a peak in spring 1991, following mill process modifications and concurrent with reductions in body burdens of hydrophobic compounds. Whitefish collected near the mill, moved upstream of effluent discharges, and held for 8 d showed no significant loss of hepatic P4501A-related (ethoxyresorufin O-deethylase, EROD) enzyme activity or P4501A protein levels. For spring 1991, correlations were found between EROD activity and measures of chronic exposure to BKME (e.g., muscle 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin content), but not between EROD and measures of acute exposure (e.g., bile content of resin acids or chlorophenolic metabolites). These and other lines of evidence indicate that the P4501A-inducing agent(s) at this site may be neither waterborne nor rapidly eliminated. A second species, longnose sucker (Catostomus catostomus), collected near the mill exhibited modest (two- to threefold) P4501A induction. For both species, no significant correlations between P4501A induction and trends in other biological responses were found, as described in a companion paper. Burbot (Lota lota) had hepatic EROD activities generally in the range of reference values, despite substantial exposure to mill-related compounds. In contrast to studies at historically degraded pulp mill sites, P4501A induction is the only major biological response observed to date at this site. As P4501A induction is not related to adverse effects, it could be best classified as an indicator of exposure to BKME.
#|Kobylinski, E.A.; Shanker, A.; Hulsey, R.A.  Zero discharge - More than a pipe dream? ENVIRON. PROT  VOL. 6, NO. 3, pp. 55-58, 1995.  Water quality standards limit the concentration of a pollutant in a receiving stream.  Whether they be EPA or individual state standards, they are based on the flow and size of a receiving stream, the designated use of the stream and existing ambient water quality. These standards, in turn, help determine NPDES permit limits for dischargers. A discharge limit for a pollutant in an effluent is strongly influenced by the allowable dilution in the receiving stream.  For example, discharge limits for metals into large rivers like the Mississippi and the Ohio are typically much higher than metals limits for small tributaries.  Wastewater reuse has traditionally been most practical in arid climates where availability and cost have been an issue. Now, with water quality the key issue, wastewater reuse may prove practical even in water-rich regions. And depending on the size of the receiving stream, reuse may actually help an industry meet their discharge limits.
#|Kobylinski, Edmund A., Black & Veatch, Kansas City, MO; Hunter, Gary L.; Quinlan, Elizabeth A. Implementing the New Water Quality Standards-Fitting the Puzzle Together.  Environ Progr  v12, n3, p169(6) Aug 93.  Water quality standards promulgated by EPA under the Clean Water Act include an aquatic toxicity testing criterion and chemical-specific numerical limits. NPDES permittees are required to comply with both criteria. The derivation of NPDES limits is explained, with reference to major pollutants, wasteload allocations, and mixing zone analysis. Permits will include only those chemicals in the effluent that have potential to violate quality standards. The actual numerical limit in NPDES permits will be a function of discharge concentration, size of receiving stream, and receiving stream water quality.
#|Koivisto,-S.  Is Daphnia magna an ecologically representative zooplankton species in toxicity tests? ENVIRON.-POLLUT. 1995  vol. 90, no. 2, pp. 263-267.  Daphnia magna is commonly used in aquatic toxicity testing because of many characters that make it easy and economical to culture in the laboratory: it is relatively small, has short life cycle, high fecundity, and parthenogenetic reproduction. On the other hand, D. magna differs from other freshwater zooplankters in size, habitat, life-history, and ability to withstand fish predation. D. magna is a relatively large zooplankton species which makes it so vulnerable to fish predation that it is excluded from fish-inhabiting lakes. It occurs mainly in ephemeral habitats like small ponds and rockpools where vertebrate predators are rare. As a result, D. magna is seldom an indigenous species in lakes which receive pollutants, although representativeness is one important criterion for the standardised toxicity test species. Small ponds are unpredictable habitats with large temporal and spatial variability in abiotic factors. Adaptation to this natural abiotic stress may increase pollution tolerance. The life-history of D. magna also differs from that of lake-inhabiting cladocerans. Large daphnids produce many small neonates, whereas the opposite is true for small cladocerans. The large neonate size allows an earlier maturation of small cladocerans compared to daphnids. In a few comparative studies D. magna tended to be less sensitive to toxic substances than other cladocerans, and this may be due in part to life-history and size differences.
#|Kolb,-T.E.; Hart,-S.C.; Amundson,-R. Boxelder water sources and physiology at perennial and ephemeral stream sites in Arizona. TREE-PHYSIOL. 1997 vol. 17, no. 3, pp. 151-160.  To assess the influence of stream water on leaf gas exchange and water potential in different sized boxelder trees (Acer negundo L.), we compared these characteristics in trees growing beside a perennial stream and a nearby ephemeral stream in a montane-riparian forest in northern Arizona. Patterns of tree water use were quantified by stable isotope analysis ( delta super(18)O). Physiological characteristics were similar for large and small trees. Similarity between sites in predawn and daytime water potentials and xylem delta super(18)O indicated that stream water was not a physiologically important water source. Seasonal and site variations in light-saturated net photosynthetic rate were significantly related to leaf-to-air vapor pressure deficit (r = -0.691) and foliar nitrogen concentration (r = 0.388). Although deep water was the dominant water source, surface soil water was utilized following precipitation, especially by small trees. We conclude that net carbon gain and severity of water stress are only weakly coupled to stream water availability.
#|Koncinski-W.S. Oak Ridge Reservation annual site environmental report for 1995. PROGRESS REPT. Oak Ridge National Lab., TN.  Sep 96. 322p. This report presents the details of the environmental monitoring and management program for the Oak Ridge Reservation. Topics discussed include: site background, climate, and operations; environmental compliance strategies; effluent monitoring; environmental management program including environmental restoration, decontamination and decommissioning, technology development, and public involvement; effluent monitoring of airborne discharges, liquid discharges, toxicity control and monitoring, biological monitoring and abatement; environmental surveillance which encompasses meteorological monitoring, ambient air monitoring, surface water monitoring, soils monitoring, sediment monitoring, and contamination of food stuffs monitoring; radiation doses; chemical exposures; ground water monitoring; and quality assurance.
#|Kooijman, S A L M ; Bedaux, J J M.  Some statistical properties of estimates of no-effect concentrations.  WATER RESEARCH vol. 30, no. 7, pp. 1724-1728, 1996.  No-effect concentrations (NECs) for toxicants are of interest from a biological and a legislation point of view. Using artificial, but typical, examples of the results of a bioassay on survival and two different models for the concentration-effect relationship, we show that the likelihood based confidence set of the NEC as parameter of the hazard model has quite acceptable statistical properties. Contrary to the hazard model, the NEC of the standard log-logistic model did not differ significantly from zero.
#|KORTE N, KEARL P.  SHOULD RESTORATION OF SMALL WESTERN WATERSHEDS BE PUBLIC-POLICY IN THE UNITED-STATES.  ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 17: (6) 729-734 NOV-DEC 1993.  Additional research is needed to determine whether restoration of degraded watersheds in the western United States should become large-scale public policy. Numerous small projects have demonstrated that vegetation can be restored, sediment losses halted, and, in some cases, formerly ephemeral streams made perennial. But if all watersheds in a basin were restored, what would be the overall effects both ecologically and economically? For example, if large-scale restoration of small watersheds were conducted in a western river basin, what would be the effects on water yield and quality for the basin as a whole? Would implementing basin-wide watershed restoration be cost-effective? A means of examining this question is to monitor a watershed prior to and during the restoration process and to compare the results to a control watershed. The watersheds would be instrumented such that the ecological processes and water balance could be monitored both instream and within the associated groundwater system. Overall effects would then be subjected to economic and policy analysis, and modeling would be used to extrapolate the new information over the entire basin. These results would then be available to political leaders and government agencies for determining whether large-scale watershed restoration should be public policy.
#|Kotalawala, A B. Impact of weirs on fish fauna of Wak-Oya, a tributary of the Kelani River.  J. NATL. SCI. COUNC. SRI LANKA vol. 22, no. 1, pp. 65-86, 1994.  Wak-oya is a tributary of the Kelani River originating in the rain forests of Southwestern Icthyological Province of Sri Lanka. It is impounded by two weirs constructed to form reservoirs to supply water to the city of Colombo. This tributary was studied from the upper feeding canals to the lower end near the river from January 1990 to August 1992 to obtain information on the physico-chemical and biological status prevailing in the stream. This study revealed that the changes in normal variation pattern of some chemical parameters near the weirs and the rubber factory is mainly due to the release of effluents into the stream. The natural downstream pattern of species composition, abundance, diversity and spawning migration of fish is disturbed by the weirs, gem mining on the stream bed and the chemical contamination of stream water. Despite the disturbed conditions Wak-oya supports twenty eight species of fish of which four are endangered and endemic to Sri Lanka. Out of sixteen cyprinids found in the stream, three are dominant and found in all habitats.
#|Kovacs,-T.G.; Gibbons,-J.S.; Tremblay,-L.A.; O'Connor,-B.I.; Martel,-P.H.; Voss,-R.H.  The effects of a secondary-treated bleached kraft mill effluent on aquatic organisms as assessed by short-term and long-term laboratory tests.  ECOTOXICOL.-ENVIRON.-SAF. 1995  vol. 31, no. 1, pp. 7-22.  The chronic effects of secondary-treated effluent from a bleached kraft mill were assessed by means of long-term and short-term laboratory tests. In the long-term test, the effects of the effluent on the life cycle of fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas) were studied. In this experiment, which began with the egg stage and continued through to sexual maturity and reproduction, the fish were exposed in the laboratory to well water (control) and five concentrations (viz., 1.25, 2.5, 5, 10, or 20%) of effluent for 275 days. The effluent concentrations did not significantly affect the hatching of the eggs, the mortality of the hatched fish, the incidence of visible morphological abnormalities, the mortality and the hatchability of the first generation eggs and larvae, and the weights of minnows at various stages of development. Based on a conservative evaluation of the data, a significant finding of this work was that effluent concentrations greater than or equal to 2.5% caused lower egg production as well as changes in the gender balance (i.e., increased numbers of individuals with male secondary sexual characteristics) of the fish. Further work is required to understand the causes and ecological significance of these findings. Two short-term tests, each lasting 7 days, were also run. In one, even 100% effluent did not reduce the survival or growth of minnow larvae, correctly predicting the lack of effluent effects on similar endpoints in the long-term test. In the other short-term test, while the survival of Ceriodaphnia was also unaffected by 100% effluent, their reproductive capacity was reduced, but only at effluent concentrations an order of magnitude greater than those affecting the reproduction of minnows in the long-term test.
#|Kovacs,-T.G.; Megraw,-S.R.  Laboratory responses of whole organisms exposed to pulp and paper mill effluents: 1991-1994. ENVIRONMENTAL FATE AND EFFECTS OF PULP AND PAPER MILL EFFLUENTS. Servos,-M.R.; Munkittrick,-K.R.; Carey,-J.H.; van-der-Kraak,-G.J. (eds.)  DELRAY BEACH, FL 33483 (USA)  ST. LUCIE PRESS.1996 pp. 459-472. The results of recent short-term and long-term laboratory tests with a variety of pulp and paper mill effluents were reviewed. In particular, attention was focused on the relationship between new bleaching technologies and the chronic toxicity of final mill effluents. The available data indicated that no generalizations could be made regarding the role of any specific pre-bleaching or bleaching process. Rather, there was limited evidence that the pulping side of mill operations could be a source of residual effluent toxicity. The extent to which laboratory tests have the ability to predict the actual impact of effluents on aquatic ecosystems is still an open question. Nevertheless, such approaches remain a cost-effective means of assessing effluent quality, especially effluents from technologies still in the developmental stage.
#|Kozlowski, Richard G.; Bleichfeld, Howard.  Water Quality Guidance for the Great Lakes Watershed.  J Environ Regul  v5, n1, p17(11), Autumn 954qr. The Great Lakes section of the 1990 Clean Water Act Amendments required EPA to issue water-quality guidelines, which specify minimum requirements for water-quality standards, antidegradation policies, and implementation procedures. This guidance represents an aggressive EPA program to clean up long-term toxic pollution problems in the Great Lakes. One of the primary goals of the guidances is improving consistency in state water programs. An overview of the guidance procedures is presented, including watershed protection, multimedia protection, whole effluent toxicity control, intake credits, aquatic life criteria for metals, water-quality criteria for wildlife, wet-weather control, and compliance schedules. EPA is also moving away from the use of mixing zones to test for compliance with discharge limitations in limited areas.
#|Kraak, M. H. S., Toussaint, M., Lavy, D., & Davids, D. (1994). Short-term effects of metals on the filtration rate of the zebra mussel Dreissena polymorpha.  ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION, vol. 84, no. 2, pp. 139-143. In order to study the short-term ecotoxicity of metals to the freshwater mussel Dreissena polymorpha, the effects of Cu, Zn and Cd on the filtration rate of this mussel were determined in laboratory experiments. Filtration rate was chosen as the endpoint, because it is a sensitive sublethal parameter compared to mortality and it is an important parameter given the ecological role D. polymorpha fulfills. The filtration rate was calculated from the decrease in algal concentration, fed to mussels in aquaria, containing different metal concentrations. The EC sub(50) for Cu (41 mu g/litre) was lower than for Cd (388 mu g/litre) and Zn (1350 mu g/litre). The NOEC sub(accumulation) for the essential metal Zn was higher than for the essential metal Cu. Cadmium, a non-essential metal, was accumulated at all elevated water concentrations, so the NOEC sub(accumulation) was the concentration in the control water (< 0.2 mu g/litre). All (no) effect concentrations found in this study were above the quality criteria set for metal concentrations in Dutch surface water, suggesting that the zebra mussel is sufficiently protected by these quality criteria.
#|Krages, B P ,II. Commenting on draft NPDES permits.  ENVIRON. REGUL. PERMITTING vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 27-36, 1996.  The process of permitting the discharge of wastewaters involves several steps before a final permit is issued. One of these steps, the submittal of comments regarding the draft permit, may offer the permit applicant and other interested parties the best opportunity to resolve permit problems and avoid litigation. Also, such comments must be provided during the comment period for a party to preserve its rights to contest permit provisions in subsequent proceedings. This article describes generally the permitting process and provides guidance on how a party can review draft permits and prepare comments for submission to permitting agencies. Specific areas of advice include review of the effluent limits, monitoring and reporting requirements, and legal provisions included in permits. The article also provides general guidance on reviewing draft permits for clarity and suggests a format for presenting comments.
#|Kramer, J R ; Adams, N W H ; Manolopoulos, H ; Collins, P V.  Fate of silver in surface waters, sediments and plant material in an old mining camp, Cobalt, Ontario.  Andren, A W ; Bober, T W  (eds ).  REPORT NUMBER: WISCU-W-96-001.  pp. 79-88, 1996. Int. Conf. Transport, Fate and Effects of Silver in the Environment.  Madison, WI (USA),  1996 Aug 25-28.  The Cobalt Mining Camp represents an interesting field site to study the mobility and fate of silver. In the immediate area surrounding the town of Cobalt are numerous 30-60 year old mine tailings, containing some of the highest levels of Ag found in the environment (see map). The present study is a follow-up to an earlier study (see Argentum II) that showed nondetectable concentrations (<10 ng/L) in most waters and rapid uptake in roots of plants. In this study, we used ultra-clean protocols to resample and analyze for Ag with a detection limit of 1.5 ng/L. As well, we have examined the effect of colloids by comparison of 0.2 mu m and 10 kDalton filtered samples. Cattails and indigenous grasses, along with garden plants grown on tailings, were sectioned in detail in order to gain further knowledge of the uptake and storage of Ag from contaminated soils.
#|Kretser, W. A. ; Simonin, H. A. ; Bath, D. W. ; Gallagher, J. ; Olson, M.  Episodic Acidification and Associated Fish and Benthic Invertebrate Responses of Four Adirondack Headwater Streams. Methods Report.  Sponsor: Corvallis Environmental Research Lab., OR. Report No.: EPA/600/R-93/192.  Oct 93, 43p. See also PB91-176065. Corvallis Environmental Research Lab.,OR.  Order this product from NTIS by:  phone at 1-800-553-NTIS (U.S. customers); (703)605-6000 (other countries); fax at (703)321-8547; and email at orders@ntis.fedworld.gov. Four low order Adirondack streams were investigated from September 1988 through June 1990 to examine the effects of hydrologic events in relation to stream chemistry and associated biological communities. The four streams were monitored continuously for pH, specific conductivity, temperatures, flow and water quality using a variety of instrumentation and procedures. During base flow and hydrologic events, weekly water samples were collected manually.  Assessment of the biological communities in response to changes in water chemistry involved a number of standard fisheries techniques including electroshocking for population estimates, in situ bioassay experiments and radio tagging experiments.
#|Kreutzberger, W.A.  Wakild, C.R.  Water quality and biological investigation of the lower Cape Fear River Basin.  Tappi journal. July 1993. v. 76 (7)  p. 169-177.
#|KRIZAN J, RAJAR R, & BREBBIA CA, E. (1997).  Determination of water quality in Yugoslav part of the River Danube (1991-1995) by the method of multiobjective iterative compromise optimization (MICO): Water pollution IV : modelling, measuring and prediction: "Lake Bled", June 1997.  International conference on water pollution, 4, 577-585.  This paper contains elaborated state of water quality in Yugoslav part of the Danube, during period of observation (1991-1995), and atypical river ecosystem exposure to pollutants. One fifth (591 km) of entire length of the Danube (2860 km) flows through Yugoslavia. This fact undoubtedly emphasizes the importance of the water quality situation in Yugoslavia on the entire Danube ecosystem. Yugoslavia's exposure to UN sanction resulted in suspension in production in almost every field of economic production and that caused decrease of pollutant input in Yugoslav part of the Danube's ecosystem. The method of MICO can be represented as a mathematical algorithm. It is designed to select the most optimal solution based on decision maker's preference toward various observed criteria. It proved to be successful in determining the most optimal solution for problems regarding to the electric currency distribution, dam building, civil engineering, etc. In order to maintain satisfying water quality decision maker should know the influence that different categories of polluters make on water quality on specific site. The average annual data of concentration and flow rate for chosen parameters of water quality (O SUB 2 , BOD SUB 5 , phosphates, nitrates, lead, cadmium, chromium, copper etc.) in the characteristics monitoring stations were compared with method of MICO from influence that different categories of polluters (agriculture, population, industry, energy generation, transport) make on the river ecosystem. The method of MICO selects those most endangered sights by the specific polluters. The general conclusion is that amount of pollution rises along the river together with the increase of flow rate and with the decrease in concentration of pollution in river. The decrease in concentration can be explained with dilution. The method of MICO could be successfully used for sound management of the water quality in river basins.
#|Kszos LA; Adams SM; Ashwood TL; Blaylock BG; Greeley MS.  Biological Monitoring and Abatement Program for the Oak Ridge K-25 Site.  Department of Energy, Washington, DC. NTIS/DE93008487, 51p.  TD3:  A proposed Biological Monitoring and Abatement Program (BMAP) for the Oak Ridge K-25 Site was prepared in December 1992 as required by the renewed National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System permit that was issued on October 1, 1992. The proposed BMAP consists of four tasks that reflect different but complementary approaches to evaluating the effects of K-25 Site effluents on the ecological integrity of Mitchell Branch, Poplar Creek, and the Poplar Creek embayment of the Clinch River. These tasks include (1) ambient toxicity monitoring, (2) bioaccumulation monitoring, (3) assessment of fish health, and (4) instream monitoring of biological communities.  This overall BMAP plan combines established protocols with current biological monitoring techniques to assess environmental compliance and quantify ecological recovery. The BMAP will also determine whether the effluent limits established for the K-25 Site protect the designated use of the receiving streams (Mitchell Branch, Poplar Creek, and Clinch River) for growth and propagation of fish and other aquatic life. Results obtained from this biological monitoring program will also be used to document the ecological effects (and effectiveness) of remedial actions.
#|Kszos, L. A. ; Hinzman, R. L. ; Peterson, M. J. ; Ryon, M. G. ; Smith, J. G.  Report on the Biological Monitoring Program at Paducah Gaseous Diffusion Plant December 1992--December 1993.  Department of Energy, Washington, DC.  Report No.: ORNL/TM-12716.  Jun 95  199p.  On September 24, 1987, the Commonwealth of Kentucky Natural Resources and Environmental Protection Cabinet issued an Agreed Order that required the development of a Biological Monitoring Program (BMP) for the Paducah Gaseous Diffusion Plant (PGDP). The goals of BMP are to demonstrate that the effluent limitations established for PGDP protect and maintain the use of Little Bayou and Big Bayou creeks for growth and propagation of fish and other aquatic life, characterize potential health and environmental impacts, document the effects of pollution abatement facilities on stream biota, and recommend any program improvements that would increase effluent treatability.  The BMP for PGDP consists of three major tasks: effluent and ambient toxicity monitoring, bioaccumulation studies, and ecological surveys of stream communities (i.e., benthic macroinvertebrates and fish).  This report includes ESD activities occurring from December 1992 to December 1993, although activities conducted outside this time period are included as appropriate.
#|Kszos-L.A.  Report on the biological monitoring program at Paducah Gaseous Diffusion Plant December 1993 to December 1994. Oak Ridge National Lab., TN.  Department of Energy, Washington, DC. May 96. 273p. On September 24, 1987, the Commonwealth of Kentucky Natural Resources and Environmental Protection Cabinet issued an Agreed Order that required the development of a Biological Monitoring Program (BMP) for the Paducah Gaseous Diffusion Plant (PGDP). The PGDP BMP was implemented in 1987 by the University of Kentucky. Research staff of the Environmental Sciences Division (ESD) at Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) served as reviewers and advisers to the University of Kentucky. Beginning in fall 1991, ESD added data collection and report preparation to its responsibilities for the PGDP BMP. The goals of BMP are to (1) demonstrate that the effluent limitations established for PGDP protect and maintain the use of Little Bayou and Big Bayou creeks for growth and propagation of fish and other aquatic life, (2) characterize potential environmental impacts, (3) document the effects of pollution abatement facilities on stream biota, and (4) recommend any program improvements that would increase effluent treatability. In September 1992, a renewed Kentucky Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (KPDES) permit was issued to PGDP. The BMP for PGDP consists of three major tasks: (1) effluent and ambient toxicity monitoring, (2) bioaccumulation studies, and (3) ecological surveys of stream communities (i.e., benthic macroinvertebrates and fish). This report includes ESD activities occurring from December 1993 to December 1994, although activities conducted outside this time period are included as appropriate.
#|Kszos-L.A.  Report on the Biological Monitoring Program at Paducah Gaseous Diffusion Plant, January--December 1995. Oak Ridge National Lab., TN.  Department of Energy, Washington, DC. Apr 96. 166p. The BMP for PGDP consists of three major tasks: (1) effluent and ambient toxicity monitoring, (2) bioaccumulation studies, and (3) ecological surveys of stream communities (benthic macroinvertebrates, fish). This report focuses on ESD activities occurring from Jan. 1995 to Dec. 1995, although activities conducted outside this period are included as appropriate.
#|Kuperman,-B.I. Fish parasites as bioindicators of water pollution. Canada Inst. for Scientific and Technical Information (CISTI), Ottawa, ON (Canada) 1993. 7 pp. NTIS:MIC-93-05819/GAR.  This paper evaluates the use of monogenetic flukes of the species Diplozoon paradoxum and cestodes of the species Caryophyllaeus laticeps (parasites of bream) as bioindicators of water pollution resulting from human activity since they are highly resistant to toxins and increase significantly in number in a polluted zone. The data presented was obtained during a study on the effect of the effluent of the coal-tar chemical industry on the fish parasites in the Sheksna pool of the Rybinsk Reservoir after the breakdown of purification installations at the Cherepovets metallurgical combine in 1987.
#|KYSHAKEVYCH, ROMAN GEORGE.  THE GENERAL INTEGRATIVE WATERSHED MODEL (GIW): A GIS BASED, LANDSCAPE ECOLOGY APPROACH TO LARGE RIVER.  ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT (WATER QUALITY).  PH.D., 1998.  Rivers of many scales have acted as conduits of transportation and communication, sources of agricultural irrigation, hydropower, potable water, and sinks of anthropogenic waste. As such, humans have always tried to manage rivers, and in the process, have often erred to extent of mismanagement. This has often led to compromising the ecological integrity of rivers, especially of large rivers. Most lotic models are "channel-centric" and there has been no generally accepted viable models that could serve as a framework for management of an entire watershed system.  The newly constructed General Integrative Watershed model (GIW), herein introduced and implemented, however, is (1) holistic, (2) applicable to both anthropogenically impacted and pristine watersheds, (3) cosmopolitan because it is applicable in any lithologic, topographic, biotic, and climatic regime, (4) a mechanistic, discrete patch system permitting cross-watershed comparisons, (5) modular, treating tributaries as units, and (6) the model is simple and easily implemented. The GIW was implemented using the French Creek watershed in northwestern Pennsylvania. The GIW predicted differential influences of various geologic bedrock, glacial deposits, and land use attributes on French Creek water quality. The model was also used to discern relationships between mussel associations and terrestrial watershed attributes.
#|La Point, T W ; Cobb, G P ; Klaine, S J ; Bills, T ; Forsythe, B ; Jeffers, R ; Waldrop, V C ; Wenholz, M.  Water quality components affecting silver toxicity in Daphnia magna and Pimephales promelas.  Andren, A W ; Bober, T W  (eds ).  REPORT NUMBER:  WISCU-W-96-001.  pp. 121-124, 1996.  Int. Conf. Transport, Fate and Effects of Silver in the Environment.  Madison, WI (USA), 1996 Aug 25-28.  We characterized silver toxicity to Daphnia magna (DM) and Pimephales promelas (FHM) for a variety of water quality conditions.  The need for such characterization results from a limited understanding of the interactions between silver toxicity and Ca-hardness, chloride and organic carbon. Our studies exposed DM and FHM to silver, as silver nitrate, at chloride concentrations ranging from 3 to 40 mg/L chloride for DM (60 for FHM), up to 200 mg/L hardness as CaCO sub(3), and up to 5 or 10 mg/L dissolved organic carbon (DOC) for DM or FHM, respectively. For FHM, mortality was 100% at silver concentrations of 20 or 40 ug/L, regardless of water quality parameters. For DM, mortality was generally complete at silver concentrations > 3.5 ug/L.  For either species, there was little protection afforded by increased CaCO sub(3), alone, whereas DOC has a major ameliorating influence on measured silver toxicity. Lower concentrations of chloride ( less than or equal to 20) had little effect on reducing silver toxicity. We noted an appreciable reduction in free silver during the course of the exposures. The individual toxicity responses of FHM and DM are described elsewhere in this Volume. The objective of this paper is to describe the intercorrelations among the independent water quality parameters and the dependent toxicity responses of FHM and DM.
#|Lai, Gloria Tseng-Chen ; McPherson, Gail Briggs ; Thakral, Surendra K. ; Claus, John A.  Wetlands Application of Reclaimed Water: A Win-Win Project for the City of Riverside, CA.  1996 Water Reuse Conference Proceedings San Diego, CA.  February 25-28, 1996, p 401-415.  AWWA.  This paper presents a case history of the City of Riverside's Hidden Valley Wetlands Enhancement Project. The main purpose of this project is to achieve compliance with the National Pollution Discharge Elimination System(NPDES) permit issued for the City of Riverside Regional Water Quality Control Plant (RWQCP). In lieu of making major capital improvements at the RWQCP, the City has a unique opportunity of using an existing constructed wetlands system in the Hidden Valley Wildlife Area to provide the required additional nitrogen removal at a much lower cost with the extra benefits of environmental enhancement.  Modification of existing wetlands system and construction of new ponds were completed in March 1995. A pilot testing program is underway prior to a larger scale of wetlands restoration for the entire plant effluent. The initial pilot testing results have demonstrated significant nitrogen removal through the system.
#|Lange, J H ; Thomulka, K W.  Evaluation of aquatic toxicity studies using three different statistical methods: Reference to aquatic bacterial bioassays.  FRESENIUS ENVIRONMENTAL BULLETIN vol. 2, no. 12, pp. 758-763, 1993.  Three different statistical methods, two-fold difference, confidence interval and formula/computational, were used to evaluate data obtained from previously published aquatic toxicity studies. The organisms/procedures used in these studies were Microtox, Vibrio harveyi, Photobacterium phosphoreum, Daphnia magna, and Salmo gairdneri. Chemicals used in the comparisons were cupric sulfate, mercuric chloride, m-cresol, n-butanol, phenol, and silver nitrate.  This data supports other studies that have suggested using the two-fold difference and confidence interval methods for comparing aquatic toxicity data, especially aquatic bacterial bioassays. The use of these statistical tests in aquatic toxicity studies is discussed.
#|Langlois, C ; Langis, R ; Perusse, M. Mercury contamination in northern Quebec environment and wildlife.  THIRD INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON MERCURY AS A GLOBAL POLLUTANT. Porcella, D ; Huckabee, J ; Wheatley, B (eds ).  WATER, AIR, AND SOIL POLLUTION vol. 80, no. 1-4 pp. 1021-1024, 1995.  It has been well documented in Northern Quebec and elsewhere that levels of mercury (Hg) in fish from natural lakes often exceed the Canadian marketing standard (0.5 mg/kg). However, little information is available on the presence of Hg in wildlife other than fish or in abiotic compartments of the environment.  Hydro-Quebec has conducted a study to assess the nature and the extent of the present Hg contamination in Northern Quebec and to acquire baseline data to monitor long term temporal changes. The results indicate that the levels of Hg observed in the environment are generally within the background levels reported for comparable pristine environments. However, total Hg concentrations in biota do reach high levels in piscivorous fishes, birds and mammals.
#|Lankford, P. W.; Eckenfelder, W.; Boero, V. J.  Technologies for compliance with water quality based permits in the U.S.  Water and environmental management in Europe and North America: a comparison of methods of practices. Water and environmental management in Europe and North America: a comparison of methods of practices. p.323-343.  1994.  Editors:  Eden, G. E.; Haigh, M. D. F.  Ellis Horwood Limited Chichester, UK.  Biological, physical and chemical wastewater treatment methods were evaluated in relation to water-quality-based discharge limits. This type of permit limit is increasingly favoured by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  Achievable removals of toxic organic compounds and metals are tabulated for various aerobic, anaerobic and physical/chemical treatment processes.  Extremely low effluent levels were shown to be achievable.
#|LaRocca,-C.A.; Francisco,-D.E.; DiGiano,-F.A. Effects of diet on survival, reproduction, and sensitivity of Ceriodaphnia dubia.  WATER-ENVIRON.-RES. 1994  vol. 66, no. 7, pp. 905-910.  The effect of diet on the health and robustness of Ceriodaphnia dubia was investigated. C. dubia were raised on three diets for 19 generations to evaluate survival and reproduction. The three diets used to culture C. dubia were the EPA-recommended one containing the green alga, Selenastrum capricornutum, plus a mixture of yeast, cereal leaves (Sigma Chemical), and trout chow (YCT); one containing the green alga, Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, plus YCT; and one with a combination of the two species of algae plus YCT. C. dubia also were subjected to various copper concentrations to evaluate the relative sensitivity to toxicants of animals raised on different diets. The levels of survival and reproduction of C. dubia raised on all three diets satisfied the both the EPA and North Carolina Division of Environmental Management Mini-chronic Pass/Fail Ceriodaphnia Effluent Toxicity Test minimum standards for control animals used in a chronic toxicity test. Survival was not significantly different in any diet tested. Reproduction was higher in the S. capricornutum/C. reinhardtii/YCT diet than in the other diets. C. dubia raised on the S. capricornutum/C. reinhardtii/YCT diet were also less sensitive to copper than animals raised on the single algae diets. The results suggest that a diet that includes multiple species of algae is nutritionally superior to one that includes a single species of algae. The nature of the diet may determine whether a particular toxicant or effluent is toxic at a particular concentration.
#|Latif, M.; Persoone, G.; Janssen, C.; Coen, W. de; Svardal, K. Toxicity evaluations of wastewaters in Austria with conventional and cost-effective bioassays. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety  vol. 32 (2):  p.139-146, 1995.  The acute toxicity of 42 samples of different types of domestic and industrial discharges was assessed with a number of tests comprising the standard Daphnia magna bioassay and three cost-effective new microbiotests (cyst-based Toxkits): the Rotoxkit F with the freshwater rotifer Brachionus calyciflorus and the Streptoxkit F andThamnotoxkit F tests with the freshwater fairy shrimps Streptocephalus proboscideus and Thamnocephalis platyurus, resp. Chemical analyses were performed for conventional water quality parameters such as chemical oxygen demand (C.O.D.), biological oxygen demand (B.O.D.5), NO2, NH3, NH4+, O2, and pH. Toxicity of the samples, expressed as German regulatory G-values, varied between 1 and 128. The results indicated that the Toxkit bioassays were as sensitive as the D. magna acute test. The crustacean T. platyurus was in 75% of the toxic samples more sensitive than D. magna. Relationships between the chemical composition and the toxicity of the dischargescould be establishedinsome cases, but not in others, which confirms the difficulties of extrapolating toxic hazards of complex wastes from (mostly restricted) chemical analyses.Theirisapotential for cost-effective bioassays (e.g.cyst-based Toxkits) as attractive alternatives to(expensive) conventional bioassays for routine monitoring of effluents and wastes.
#|Laudise J E, Laudise R A, Graedel T E, & Barns R L.  Water quality analysis of Twin Lakes, PA, 1965-1993, a unique database.  Journal of the Pennsylvania Academy of Science, 68 (2), 1994, 67-76.  We have examined water quality data going back to 1965 in a North-Eastern lake system, Twin Lakes, PA (two small lakes in Pike Co.). The results are unique for their time span at one location and include more than 5,000 separate analyses over a 28 year period. Nine criteria for water quality have been measured (some continuously, all from 1987 onwards): pH, total alkalinity, total phosphorus, ammonia, dissolved oxygen, biochemical oxygen demand, total coliform, focal coliform, and total bacteria along with local precipitation pH. In this paper, we emphasize those measurements which have impact on pH trends. Statistical analyses of these data show that while the lake pH (6.4) is decreasing slightly (-0.007 +- 0.003 pH units/yr) the pH of local precipitation (4.2) is increasing slightly (+0.011 +- 0.004), illustrating that in this instance local anthropogenic events are probably more important in changing lake acidity than continental scale contaminations. The largest local change is that the number of dwellings in the drainage basin has more than doubled during the measurement period which led to changes in run off. The present acid neutralizing capacity (which has increased slightly since 1985) indicates that the lakes remain stable but sensitive to acidification. According to the Carlson Trophic State Index (1977) the lakes may be marginally eutrophied at some locations and at some times, while bacteria levels are well within the acceptable range for recreational purposes and oxygen levels are at ranges which easily sustain life.
#|Law and Water -- Permit-Writing Regulation Upheld; American Paper Institute Inc. v. EPA, US Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia, January 22, 1993 (AWW/01/F.-$10).  Journal American Water Works Association, vol.86, no.2, p 10, February 1994.  AWWA. The US court of Appeals for the District of Columbia has upheld a regulation that requires writers of pollution discharge permits to use one of three methods to interpret state water quality standards containing "narrative criteria" so as to establish precise chemical-specific effluent limitations.
#|Law, A. T.; Yeo, M. E. Toxicity of Phenol on Macrobrachium rosenbergii (de Man) Eggs, Larvae, and Post-Larvae.  Bull Environ Contam Toxicol  v58, n3, p469(6) Mar 97.  Macrobrachium rosenbergii (de Man) is a freshwater prawn cultured in Malaysia. Results are presented from a study that examined the impact of phenol on the eggs, larvae, and post-larvae of M. rosenbergii. The flow-through bioassay system used is described. The lethal concentrations for larvae and post-larvae mortality and for egg hatchability were estimated using probit analysis. The resulting 48-h LC50 values for phenol ranged from 11.83 mg/l for stage-two larvae to 29.92 mg/l for post-larvae. A 100% inhibition of embryonic development was observed at phenol concentrations of 5 and 10 mg/l, and a significant effect on hatching rate was observed at 0.05 mg phenol/l. Embryonic development of M. rosenbergii was found to be 20-30 times more sensitive to phenol than that of fish. A phenol water-quality standard of 0.1 mg/l is proposed, based on the experimental data.
#|Le Du, A ; Dive, D ; Guerbet, M ; Jouany, J M. The protozoan biotest Colpidium campylum, a tool for toxicity detection and toxic interaction modelling.  PROCEEDINGS OF THE SECOND EUROPEAN CONFERENCE ON ECOTOXICOLOGY.  Sloof, W ; de Kruijf, H  (eds ).  SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT vol. Suppl. Pts. 1-2 pp. 809-815, 1993.  European Conf. on Ecotoxicology: (Netherlands), 1992 May11-15.  This paper presents the bioassay Colpidium campylum, a ciliate protozoan of freshwater. Easy to learn, cost-effective, sensitive, this test appears to be complementary to other aquatic tests such as the Daphnia or the Microtox tests. It is a miniaturized test usable as a substitution method for cellular tissues. Two study methods were developed: measurement of IC sub(50) of products, and polynomial modelling of interactions between components, which allows estimation of the toxicity of an effluent in the receiving medium. This bioassay and the method of study of interactions are two tools which seem to have their place in risk assessment in aquatic medium.
#|Leach, Rosalie D. Biological values of intermittent streams : implications for restoration.  1996.  Term paper for Landscape Architecture 227, Prof. G. Mathias Kondolf, University of California, Berkeley.
#|Lee, G. F.; Jones-Lee, Anne, G.  Stormwater Runoff Management: the Need for a Different Approach.  Water Eng Manag  v142, n3, p36(4) Mar 95.  According to the amended Clean Water Act, which was reauthorized in 1987, the US EPA is required to create a National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit program for handling discharges of urban stormwater runoff. The first phase of the proposed NPDES project is directed toward urban areas with populations of 100,000 or more. The proposed legislation would also require all industries and construction sites to acquire NPDES stormwater runoff discharge permits. These regulations require that pollution associated with stormwater runoff be controlled to the maximum extent practicable (ME) using best management practices. To date, no single standard for MEP has been developed at the state or federal levels. Different types of pollutants associated with stormwater are discussed.
#|Lee, L.H.; Lustigman, B.  Effect of barium and nickel on the growth of Anacystis nidulans.  BULL. ENVIRON. CONTAM. TOXICOL  VOL. 56, NO. 6, pp. 985-992, 1996.  Anacystis nidulans is a simple, unicellular, prokaryotic microorganism.  Like other cyanobacteria it is an obligate photoautotroph that is similar to gram-negative bacteria in cell wall structure, replication, and ability to harbor plasmids.  Cyanobacteria are excellent organisms to serve as models for the investigation of a wide variety of biological problems, including indicators of environmental pollution. There have been several studies on the effects of heavy metals on A. nidulans. Toxic metals are a major water pollution problem.  Metals come from natural weathering processes of the earth's crust, but industrialization and urbanization have led to an increase in contamination of aquatic environments, mainly from industrial discharge, pest or disease control agents applied to plants, urban runoff, mining, soil erosion, sewage effluents, air pollution fallout, and other sources. Among these contaminants are nickel, barium, and their derivatives. Nickel is found in small quantities in the earth's crust (80ppm).  Nickel smelting, nickel ore extraction, electronic electroplating, fossil fuels, incineration, coins, steel alloys, batteries and other sources all add to endangerment of the ecosystem by nickel pollution.  Nickel carbonyl, formed by nickel in the presence of carbon monoxide, is the most toxic form of nickel. The binding capacity of waste biomass for silver, chromium, lead and copper was reported as greater than that for nickel. Some ions may also play a role as essential cofactors in metalloenzymes, as is the case for nickel.
#|Lee,-G.F.; Jones-Lee,-A.  Independent applicability of chemical and biological criteria/standards and effluent toxicity testing. NATL.-ENVIRON.-J. 1995  vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 60-67.  In 1985 the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) advocated a two-part approach for water pollution control involving chemical concentration-based effluent limits for those parameters for which water quality criteria had been developed and toxicity test-based effluent limitations. The chemical-specific component was designed to prevent exceedances of water quality criteria values in ambient waters receiving point and non-point source discharges or runoff; the water quality criteria were, in large part, developed to be chronic-exposure, safe concentrations for sensitive aquatic organisms. The toxicity test component was designed to indicate potential toxicity effects associated with an activity, to account for the possible presence of a toxic contaminant that did not have a water quality criterion, and to provide the opportunity for site-specific tuning of the chemical-specific criteria for synergism, antagonism, chemical availability, and exposure situations. EPA has since expanded its recommended approaches to include a direct measure of biological characteristics (biological criteria) of surface waters. The biological criteria focus on the numbers, types and characteristics of organisms present downstream of a discharge or runoff compared with the numbers, types and characteristics expected based on the aquatic life habitat characteristics. A number of states have developed biological criteria and have been using them in water pollution control programs.
#|Legault,-R.; Blaise,-C.; Trottier,-S.; White,-P.A.  Detecting genotoxic activity in industrial effluents using the SOS chromotest microplate assay. ENVIRON.-TOXICOL.-WATER-QUAL. 1996  vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 151-165.  The SOS Chromotest, a cost-effective short-term bacterial genotoxicity screening assay, was performed to appraise its capacity for detecting the presence of soluble genotoxic activity in industrial effluent samples (organic and inorganic chemical plants, metallurgical plants, pulp and paper mills, municipal wastewater treatment plants). An optimized methodology, based on criteria taking into account beta -galactosidase activity (the indicator of SOS gene induction), alkaline phosphatase activity (the indicator of cytotoxicity), and two genotoxicity measurement end points (minimum genotoxic concentration and maximum induction factor), was employed to generate reliable results that overcame the potential interferences inherent to complex wastewaters. Of 48 effluent samples tested, 37 (77%) elicited a significant induction of the Escherichia coli PQ37 SOS response. Effluents from inorganic chemical plants and pulp and paper mills displayed the most potent responses, with and without metabolizing enzymes (S9 mix). In general, chemical data available for some wastewaters supported SOS Chromotest positive responses. The genotoxic activity of whole effluents subjected to a 5-day aeration treatment was as high as that of native (unaerated) samples, suggesting that soluble genotoxicants are relatively recalcitrant to oxidation, although reductions in genotoxic activity did occur. This study indicates that the SOS Chromotest is sufficiently sensitive to screen for the presence of soluble DNA-damaging agents in a wide variety of unconcentrated wastewater samples.
#|Lejeune K. Galbraith H. Lipton J. Kapustka LA . EFFECTS OF METALS AND ARSENIC ON RIPARIAN COMMUNITIES IN SOUTHWEST MONTANA.  Ecotoxicology. 5(5):297-312, 1996 Oct.  Concentrations of metals and arsenic in floodplain soils of Silver Bow Creek and the upper Clark Fork River in southwest Montana were related to phytotoxic responses by individual plants in laboratory experiments, vegetative community structure and composition in the field and wildlife habitat. Samples collected from barren or very sparsely vegetated mixed mine tailings and alluvium deposits (slickens) in the floodplains along Silver Bow Creek and the Clark Fork River had concentrations of As, Cd, Cu, Pb and Zn that were significantly elevated relative to reference sites. Laboratory phytotoxicity tests demonstrated severe and rapid effects of the elevated concentrations of metals and As on hybrid poplar and standard test species (alfalfa, lettuce and wheat): growth inhibition of hybrid poplars was nearly 100% and of standard test species greater than or equal to 75%. Vegetation community measurements revealed that slickens have replaced riparian forest, shrub, hay fields and pasture land; in doing so, the slickens have reduced both the compositional and structural heterogeneity of the riparian habitat. This reduction in habitat complexity has reduced the capacity of the area to provide a diversity of suitable wildlife habitat.
#|Lemly, A D. Assessing the toxic threat of selenium to fish and aquatic birds.  ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT vol. 43, no. 1, pp. 19-35, 1996.  A procedure is given for evaluating the toxic threat of selenium to fish and wildlife. Toxic threat is expressed as hazard, and is based on the potential for food-chain bioaccumulation and reproductive impairment in fish and aquatic birds, which are the most sensitive biological responses for estimating ecosystem-level impacts of selenium contamination. Five degrees of hazard are possible depending on the expected environmental concentrations of selenium, exposure of fish and aquatic birds to toxic concentrations, and resultant potential for reproductive impairment. The degree of hazard is given a numerical score: 5 = high hazard, 4 = moderate hazard, 3 = low hazard, 2 = minimal hazard, and 1 = no identifiable hazard. A separate hazard score is given to each of five ecosystem components water, sediments, benthic macroinvertebrates, fish eggs, and aquatic bird eggs. A final hazard characterization is determined by adding individual scores and comparing the total to the following evaluation criteria: 5 = no hazard, 6-8 = minimal hazard, 9-11 = low hazard, 12-15 = moderate hazard, 16-25 = high hazard. An example is given to illustrate how the procedure is applied to selenium data from a typical contaminant monitoring program.
#|Lemly, A D. Evaluation of the hazard quotient method for risk assessment of selenium.  ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY vol. 35, no. 2, pp. 156-162, 1996.  Environmental contamination with selenium from industrial and agricultural sources has poisoned fish and wildlife at several locations in the United States. Monitoring and risk assessment activities are currently being conducted by many state and Federal agencies. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) recommends a hazard quotient (HQ) method (waterborne concentration divided by the national water quality criterion) to assess the toxic threat of individual waterborne elements, including selenium. An evaluation of the EPA HQ method was conducted by comparing it to a recently published protocol (Protocol) for selenium assessment. Hazard estimates obtained using HQ were found to be invalid because the EPA water quality criterion is outdated, and the procedure uses mean rather than maximum waterborne concentrations. The HQ method seriously underestimates hazard and could lead to risk management decisions that would not protect fish and wildlife from selenium toxicity. The Protocol method provides an accurate assessment because it evaluates hazard by examining multiple exposure pathways on a site-specific basis. Until a revised (lowered) national water quality criterion is available, the EPA HQ method should not be used for selenium. Even then, with the availability of the Protocol, HQ analysis should be restricted to data sets where water is the primary or sole source of information on environmental concentrations of selenium.
#|Lemly, A. D. (1998). A position paper on selenium ecotoxicology: a procedure for deriving site-specific water quality criteria.  Ecotoxicology and environmental safety, Vol. 39(1): 1.
#|Lemly, A. D. Environmental implications of excessive selenium: a review. Biomedical and Environmental Sciences  vol. 10 (4):  p.415-435, 1997.  Selenium is a naturally occurring trace element that is nutritionally required in small amounts but it can become toxic at concentrations only twice those required.  The narrow margin between beneficial and harmful levels has important implications for human activities that increase the amount of selenium in the environment. Two of these activities, disposal of fossil fuel wastes and agricultural irrigation of arid, seleniferous soils, have poisoned fish and wildlife, and threatened public health at several locations in the USA.  Research studies of these episodes have generated a database that illustrates the environmental hazard of excessive selenium. It is strongly bioaccumulated by aquatic organisms and even slight increases in waterborne concentrations can quickly result in toxic effects such as deformed embryos and reproductive failure in wildlife. The selenium database was beneficial in developing hazard assessment procedures and establishing environmentally sound water quality criteria. The two aspects of selenium, required nutrient and potent toxin, make it a particularly important trace element in the health of animals and man.
#|Lemly, A. Dennis.  Comparison of Daphnia magna, Rainbow Trout and Bacterial-Based Toxicity Tests of Ontario Hydro Aquatic Effluents.  Water Air Soil Pollut  v90, n1-2, p105(8) Jul 96.  In Ontario, Canada, regulations require monthly or quarterly sampling of specific effluent streams using acute lethality toxicity tests with Daphnia magna and rainbow trout, followed by chronic toxicity testing using a fathead minnow larval growth stream. Results are presented from a study conducted at Ontario Hydro, which compared results from toxicity tests using D. magna, rainbow trout, and a bacterial colorimetric assay called the Toxi-chromotest. Effluents from the ash-transport system and boiler blow-down were evaluated. Good correlations were found between the D. magna and rainbow trout acute toxicity tests. However, if the effluent was toxic to only one species, it was generally toxic to D. magna. The D. magna acute toxicity test did not correlate well with the Toxi-chromotest assay.
#|Lemly, A. Dennis.  Ecosystem Recovery Following Selenium Contamination of a Freshwater Reservoir.  Ecotoxicol Environ Saf  v36, n3, p275(7) Apr 97.  From 1974 to 1985, Belews Lake, North Carolina was contaminated with selenium in effluent from a coal fired power plant. Because of selenium in the food chain, birth defects and reproductive failure were common in fish. Ten years after the utility ended the contamination of the lake, a survey of water, sediment, aquatic organisms, and birds for bioaccumulation of selenium was conducted. Selenium concentrations in water were reduced to below 1 (gr)mg/l from 20 (gr)mg/l prior to 1986. Selenium concentrations in biota were reduced between 85 and 95%. However, because of the selenium remaining in sediment and in detritus that can enter the food chain, the selenium hazard in the lake is considered to be moderate.  Although sediment selenium levels are reduced by 65 to 75%, bioaccumulation still possible in aquatic organisms and birds from the remaining 1 to 4 (gr)mg/g. Fish still exhibit developmental abnormalities. Winter Stress Syndrome, which increases mortality is found among bluegill juveniles and other fish.
#|Lemly, A. Dennis. Wastewater Discharges May Be Most Hazardous to Fish During Winter.  Environ Pollut  v93, n2, p169(6), 1996.  During winter months, many populations of fish suffer from a condition known as Winter Stress Syndrome (WSS). WSS is a result of lipid depletion in fish resulting from a combination of the action of external stressors and normal declines in feeding and activity during the wintermonths. Chemical stressors, such as water pollution, can significantly affect the severity of WSS impacts on fish. In some cases, high rates of mortality can alter year-class strength and population structure for the impacted species. These changes, in turn, alter community-level ecological parameters. Standards governing acceptable levels of aquatic contaminants must seek to incorporate factors representing WSS in studied populations. Specific issues associated with wastewater discharges are discussed.
#|Lemly, A.D.  Subsurface agricultural irrigation drainage: the need for regulation.  Regul Toxicol Pharmacol  1993  Apr;17(2 Pt 1):157-80. Subsurface drainage resulting from irrigated agriculture is a toxic threat to fish and wildlife resources throughout the western United States.  Studies by the U.S. Department of the Interior show that migratory waterfowl have been poisoned by drainwater contaminants on at least six national wildlife refuges.  Allowing this poisoning to continue is a violation of the Migratory Bird Treaty Act under U.S. Federal law. Critical wetlands and waterfowl populations are threatened in both the Pacific and Central flyways.  The public is also at risk and health warnings have been issued in some locations.  Subsurface irrigation drainage is a complex effluent containing toxic concentrations of trace elements, salts, and nitrogenous compounds. Some of the contaminants are classified by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) as priority pollutants and they can be present in concentrations that exceed EPA's criteria for toxic waste.  The on-farm drainage systems used to collect and transport this wastewater provide point-source identification as well as a mechanism for toxics control through the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit process.  A four-step approach is presented for dealing with irrigation drainage in an environmentally sound manner. This regulatory strategy is very similar to those commonly used for industrial discharges and includes site evaluation, contaminant reduction through NPDES, and compliance monitoring.  The EPA must recognize subsurface irrigation drainage as a specific class of pollution subject to regulation under the NPDES process.  Active involvement by EPA is necessary to ensure that adequate controls on this wastewater are implemented.
#|Lenat,-D.-R.  A Biotic Index for the Southeastern United States: Derivation and List of Tolerance Values, with Criteria for Assigning Water-Quality Ratings. Journal of the North American Benthological Society JNASEC, Vol. 12, No. 3, p 279-290, September 1993. North Carolina's Division of Environmental Management has a large number of semi-quantitative stream macroinvertebrate collections that have been assigned water quality ratings. These semiquantitative data use abundance values of Rare=1, Common=3, and Abundant=10, allowing the calculation of mean abundance (range=0-10) for each taxon across five water quality classes. This information was used to derive tolerance values and classification criteria for a southeastern biotic index. Classification criteria were adjusted for both season and ecoregion, but no corrections were required for stream size. Tolerance values are listed for >500 North Carolina taxa, and are compared with a similar Wisconsin database.
#|Lenat,-D.R.; Crawford,-J.K.  Effects of land use on water quality and aquatic biota of three North Carolina piedmont streams.HYDROBIOLOGIA 1994  vol. 294, no. 3, pp. 185-199.  Three streams in the Piedmont ecoregion of North Carolina were studied to evaluate the effect of land use (forested, agricultural, urban) on water quality and aquatic biota. In comparison with the forested stream, there were few changes in water quality at the agricultural and urban streams. Suspended-sediment yield was greatest for the urban catchment and least at the forested catchment. Suspended-sediment concentrations during storm events followed this same pattern, but at low-moderate flows suspended-sediment concentrations were greatest at the agricultural site. Most nutrient concentrations were highest at the agricultural site, and the amount of 'available' dissolved nitrogen was elevated at both the urban and agricultural sites. High concentrations of metals (totals) in the water column were sometimes observed at all sites, but maximum average concentrations were recorded at the urban site (especially Cr, Cu, and Pb). Maximum sediment metal concentrations, however, were not found at the urban site, but were usually recorded at the forested site. Only minor differences were noted between fish communities of the forested and agricultural sites, although both abundance and average size of some species increased at the agricultural site. The fish community at the urban site was characterized by low species richness, low biomass, and the absence of intolerant species. Invertebrate taxa richness, a biotic index, and the number of unique invertebrate species (found at only one site) indicated moderate stress (Fair water quality) at the agricultural site and severe stress (Poor water quality) at the urban site. At the agricultural site, declines in taxa richness within intolerant groups were partially offset by increases within tolerant groups. The agricultural stream had the highest abundance values, indicating enrichment. The urban site, however, was characterized by low species richness for most groups and very low abundance values. Analysis of seasonal patterns suggested detritus was the most important food source for invertebrates in the forested stream, while periphyton was of greater importance in the agricultural stream. Dominant macroinvertebrate groups shifted from Ephemeroptera at the forested site, to Chironomidae at the agricultural site, and Oligochaeta at the urban site. There was little between-site overlap in dominant species (8-17%), indicating that land use strongly influenced the invertebrate community. Chemical and physical parameters measured at the three sites did not seem sufficient to account for all of the observed differences in the invertebrate communities, suggesting some unmeasured toxicity. Biological measurements, especially macroinvertebrates community structure, consistently indicated strong between-site differences in water and habitat quality.
#|Leonard D, Reash R, Porcella D, Paralkar A, Summers K, & Gherini S.  Use of the mercury cycling model, (MCM) to predict the fate of mercury in the Great Lakes.  Water Air and Soil Pollution, 80 (1-4). 1995.  519-528.  In response to U.S. EPA's proposed Great Lakes water quality criteria for mercury (Hg), a field-validated Hg cycling model (MCM) was used to predict Hg levels in the abiotic and biotic components of Lake Superior and Lake Erie. The U.S. EPA criteria are based on water column Hg concentrations and simple trophic level transfer and, thus, do not consider sediment interactions and water chemistry factors. The model, using data from published reports, was run to simulate a 25 year steady state period. For these simulations, methylmercury (MeHg) represented 5% of total Hg in Lake Erie and 8% of total Hg in Lake Superior. These proportions are roughly 3-5 times lower than U.S. EPA's estimate that MeHg contributes about 25% of total Hg in the water column of the Great Lakes. The predicted median concentrations of total Hg in top-carnivore fish were 0.13 mg/kg in Lake Superior and 0.16 mg/kg in Lake Erie. Predicted median MeHg concentrations in Lake Superior and Lake Erie (water column) were 0.019 and 0.075 ng/L, respectively. For both takes, most ( gt 55%) of the Hg was partitioned to sediments. Although the MCM simulation does have practical limitations (e.g., takes are treated as fully-mixed open systems), the results demonstrate that generic assumptions of Hg behavior in all Great Lakes waterbodies are too simplistic.
#|LEWIS W M JR; SAUNDERS J F III.  Improvements in stream ammonia models by simultaneous computation of extremes in flow and water chemistry.  Environmental science & technology, 1995, 29 (7) 1796-1801.  For wastewater discharge permits, it is standard practice to assume that critical conditions of low flow will coincide with conditions of pH and temperature that maximize the un-ionized fraction of ammonia. The present study reports the results of an analysis of this association at 12 sites in Colorado.  The study shows no general relationship between flow and percent un-ionized ammonia at any station. Also, within periods of low flow thereis no parametric association between percent un-ionized ammonia and low flow.  A nonparametric test focusing specifically on periods of low flow shows that eight of the stations have a random association of the two variables, three stations have percent un-ionized ammonia significantly lower than the mean during periods of low flow, and a single station has percent un-ionized ammonia above the mean during low flows. Overall, the assumption of strong association between low flow and high percent un-ionized ammonia is not justified by field data and may result in overly stringent ammonia control requirements for point source discharges.
#|Lewis-P.A.; Klemm-D.J.; Lazorchak-J.M.; Norberg-King-T.J.; Peltier-W.H. Short-Term Methods for Estimating the Chronic Toxicity of Effluents and Receiving Water to Freshwater Organisms. Third Edition. Environmental Monitoring Systems Lab., Cincinnati, OH. Jul 94. 364p. This manual describes four short-term (four- to seven-day) methods for estimating the chronic toxicity of effluents and receiving waters to three freshwater species: The fathead minnow, Pimephales promelas, a daphnid, Ceriodaphnia dubia, and a green alga, Selenastrum capricornutum. The methods include single and multiple concentration static renewal and non-renewal toxicity tests for effluents and receiving waters. Also included are guidelines on laboratory safety, quality assurance, facilities, equipment and supplies; dilution water; effluent and receiving water sample collection, preservation, shipping, and holding; test conditions; toxicity test data analysis; report preparation; and organism culturing, holding, and handling.
#|Liang, Shih-Hsiung; Menzel, Bruce W.  A new method to establish scoring criteria of the index of biotic integrity. Zoological Studies  36 (3):p240-250 1997.  Karr's Index of Biotic Integrity (IBI) was applied in north central Iowa streams to examine the technique's utility for measuring environmental quality in agriculturally-influenced streams and to develop methodological improvement. During 1988 and 1989, fish were collected in the Boone River and Lizard Creek systems, and physical and chemical measurements of stream environmental conditions were taken. A modified two-step procedure was proposed for establishing the scoring standard of the 12 IBI metrics. First, a simple linear regression relationship of the metric variable on log drainage area was calculated (p = 0.1). If a significant correlation was found, a Maximum-Species-Richness Line (MSRL) was determined by calculating the 95% Y-intercept as its intercept, and then plotted by the original regression slope. If a nonsignificant relationship was obtained, the upper and lower 5% data points were deleted to define the upper and lower boundaries of the remaining points with horizontal lines. Finally, the area below the calculated 95% MSRL and the area between the two horizontal lines were equally trisected into above average (5 point), average (3 point), and below average (1 point) categories. After the scoring criteria were established, the IBI value of each sampling site in Boone River and Lizard Creek systems was calculated. The new scoring procedure resolved the problem of the commonly adopted "eye-fit" method through generating only a single MSRL for a given data set. In Lizard Creek, IBI results were generally consistent with evaluations of physical and chemical environmental quality. During the drought period, variations of IBI scores reflected the dynamics of environmental conditions in the sampling sites. Additionally, the IBI showed greater temporal consistency than another commonly used analytical tool, the Shannon-Weiner Diversity Index. Thus, the new scoring procedure seems to advance the effectiveness of IBI in assessing the environment quality of lotic waters. Numerical species metrics associated with species diversity were more important than proportional ones in contributing to the IBI. Drought conditions throughout the study period influenced some of the data and analytical results.
#|Lieberman, Joshua.  SWIMS:  A Computerized Information Management System for NPDES Stormwater and Wastewater Discharge Compliance.  Integrated Water Resources Planning for the 21st Century: 22nd Annual Conference: American Society of Civil Engineers, Water Resources Planning and Management Division Cambridge, MA.  May 7-11, 1995.  p 420-423, 1995.  American Society of Civil Engineers.  A computerized SWIMS (surface water information management system) has been designed and developed to meet the needs of National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit compliance. Such permits may involve the collection and reporting of a large volume of chemical and physical parameters. SWIMS is intended to facilitate the three major tasks faced by any NPDES permit holder: collection and validation of required discharge data and documentation; production of required periodic discharge monitoring reports (DMR); and, warning and analysis of non-compliance with permit requirements. The SWIMS data model emphasizes generality and flexibility, in order to encompass as wide a range of potential permit requirements as possible. Implementation of SWIMS in Microsoft Access(TM) has resulted in a graphical application which shares data readily with other Windows applications such as spreadsheets and word processors. This forms a complete and easy-to-use compliance tracking system useful to both the facility operator and the permitting consultant.
#|Lillie RA; Schlesser RA.  Extracting Additional Information from Biotic Index Samples. Spon. Agency: Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, DC. Order Info.: NTIS/PB96-117429, 9p.  Macroinvertebrates were collected from a small midwestern stream over a 3-year period as part of a non-point source pollution study. Temporal and spatial variability in standard biotic index values (BIIs) were computed and compared with variability expressed by a series of additional community measurements, including the mean tolerance value of all taxa present in a sample, irrespective of the numerical abundance of individual taxa. The mean tolerance value exhibited lower spatial and temporal variability than the standard BI; therefore, mean tolerance values may be useful in estimating a stream's long-term ambient water quality and its recovery potential. Computations of additional BI metrics are easily accomplished with no additional lab work required, and comparisons of mean tolerance values with standard BIs should aid investigators in interpreting changes in water quality. Pub. in the Great Lakes Entomologist, v27 n3 p129-136 1994.
#|Lin, Chuen-Chang, R.  1994.  MODELLING THE DETROIT RIVER AQUATIC AND SEDIMENT SYSTEMS.  Thesis (Ph.D.) Wayne State University.  The International Joint Commission (IJC) has identified 43 Areas of Concern (AOC) on the Great Lakes. The Detroit River, a binational waterway, is one such AOC with impaired uses documented in the Stage I Remedial Action Plan (RAP) submitted to the IJC under the Great Lake Water Quality Agreement, including restrictions on fish and wildlife consumption due to Mercury contamination, degradation of benthic communities, and restrictions on dredging activities because of several metals including Mercury.  The objective of this study is to use the historical field data and to develop a comprehensive transport and fate model, including contaminant source/sink rates among three compartments (air, water, and sediment) and multiple point source contaminant discharges (municipal and industrial sources, tributaries, stormwater, and combined sewer overflows).  The Atmospheric and Sediment Deposition Model (ASDM) is a generalized temporal and spatial transport and fate model for predicting water, sediment, fish, suspended solid, plankton, porewater and benthos phase contaminant concentration profiles in the river. The model includes water column and surface sediment advection and dispersion, multimedia contaminant transport processes (air/water diffusion, water/sediment diffusion, dry and wet deposition, suspended solid settling, sediment resuspension and burial), intermedia contaminant partitioning processes(water/suspended solid sorption, porewater/sediment sorption, water/plankton sorption, porewater/benthos sorption, and fish sorption), and contaminant transformation processes (biolysis, hydrolysis, oxidation, and photolysis).  Comparisons of the model simulation results and measured data for the steady state Mercury concentrations in the Detroit River water column and surface sediment are in good agreement. All Mercury concentrations in the Detroit River water phase which exceed Michigan's Rule 57(2) Criteria (0.6 ng/l) are equivalently predicted by the simulation results, and most Mercury concentrations in the Detroit River sediment phase which are less than the Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) Dredge Criteria (Heavily Polluted Value 1.0 mg/Kg) are comparable to the simulation results (Regression Line Slope: 0.7-1.3, Regression Line Intercept: 0.0, Regression Coefficient: 0.6-1.0).
#|Lin,-Cheng-Fang; Hao,-O.J.; Jeng,-Fu-Tien.  Microtox evaluation of industrial wastewaters.  WATER QUALITY INTERNATIONAL '94. PART 10: WATER QUALITY MONITORING; LAKE MANAGEMENT. Ballay,-D.; Asano,-T.; Bhamidimarri,-R.; Chin,-K.K.; Dahlberg,-A.G.; Grabow,-W.O.K.; Ohgaki,-S.; Zotter,-K.; Milburn,-A.; Izod,-E.J.; Nagle,-P.T. (eds.)  1994 pp. 97-106. WATER-SCI.-TECHNOL. vol. 30, no. 10, 1994.  The main purpose of this study was to establish an inhibitory database using the Microtox assay for different wastes. The waste samples included 19 pretreated industrial wastes from two different industrial parks, 11 other industrial wastes outside industrial parks, and different treatment process effluents. The following is a brief summary of the findings from this study: (1) COD and BOD had a close relationship among different wastes; (2) Microtox data did not correlate with the conventional parameters of BOD, COD and SS; (3) many wastes did not meet the pretreatment standards and exhibited high Microtox toxicity; (4) some wastes exhibited high Microtox toxicity, although they met the pretreatment standards; (5) the mixture of the individual wastes exhibited an antagonistic effect; (6) the activated sludge process removed 60-75% of influent toxicity; and (7) the final effluent sometimes showed an increase in Microtox toxicity.
#|Lindesjoeoe, E ; Thulin, J ; Bengtsson, B E ; Tjaernlund, U.  Abnormalities of a gill cover bone, the operculum, in perch Perca fluviatilis from a pulp mill effluent area.  AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY vol. 28, no. 3-4, pp. 189-207, 1994.  Abnormalities of a gill cover bone, the operculum, were found in perch Perca fluviatilis from an area affected by pulp mill effluents in the Gulf of Bothnia, Baltic Sea, Sweden. One of the abnormalities was expressed as a shortening of the distal part of the operculum, and was termed opercular deformity. This deformity was quantified by taking two measurements of the operculum. The second abnormality was manifested as craterous formations on the operculum. Both abnormalities were studied using a sample of opercula collected in the pulp mill effluent area between the years 1982 and 1989. The maximum prevalences of the abnormalities, 34% for the craterous formation and 20% for the opercular deformity, were found in 1983 and 1984, respectively. In a reference area the prevalences were 1% and 1.4%, respectively. After 1984, the prevalences decreased together with prevalences of other fish diseases and deformities in the same area. This coincided with a reduction in concentrations of effluent. The observed high prevalence of the opercular deformity and the craterous formations were attributed to the effects of the pulp mill effluent. In addition, an analysis of the biochemical composition opercula from perch caught in another pulp mill effluent area showed a dose-dependent alteration of several constituents, indicating a relationship with exposure to the effluent.  This study shows the potential of opercular abnormalities to monitor effects of pulp mill effluents, and also, it is suggested, for retrospective studies on large samples of opercula used for age determination in ecological studies of fish.
#|Line, D. E., Wu, J., Arnold, J. A., Jennings, G. D., & Rubin, A. R.  1997.  Water Quality of First Flush Runoff from 20 Industrial Sites.  Water Environ Res v69, n3, p305(6). Results are presented from an assessment program conducted to evaluate the quality of first flush storm water runoff from several common types of industry found in North Carolina. Samples were collected during the first 30 minutes of runoff from a total of 20 industrial sites. Sample analyses found that zinc and copper were the most common of the eight metals identified in the runoff samples. Eight of the 20 sites tested produced runoff that contained substantial quantities of ten VOCs, semivolatile organic compounds, and pesticides. The most common of these contaminants was methylene chloride, which was found at three sites. Levels of conventional pollutants, e.g., nutrients and solids, were highest at sites containing high levels of biological wastes or with large amounts of exposed soil.
#|Liszewski-M.J.; Mann-L.J.  Concentrations of 23 trace elements in ground water and surface water at and near the Idaho National Engineering Laboratory, Idaho, 1988--91. Geological Survey, Idaho Falls, ID.  Sponsored by Department of Energy, Washington, DC. 1993. 47p.  Analytical data for 23 trace elements are reported for ground- and surface-water samples collected at and near the Idaho National Engineering Laboratory during 1988--91. Water samples were collected from 148 wells completed in the Snake River Plain aquifer, 18 wells completed in discontinuous deep perched-water zones, and 1 well completed in an alluvial aquifer.  Surface-water samples also were collected from three streams, two springs, two ponds, and one lake. Data are categorized by concentrations of total recoverable of dissolved trace elements. Concentrations of total recoverable trace elements are reported for unfiltered water samples and include results for one or more of the following: aluminum, arsenic, barium, beryllium, cadmium, chromium, cobalt, copper, iron, lead, manganese, mercury, nickel, selenium, silver, and zinc. Concentrations of dissolved trace elements are reported for water samples filtered through a nominal 0.45-micron filter and may also include bromide, fluoride, lithium, molybdenum, strontium, thallium, and vanadium. Concentrations of dissolved hexavalent chromium also are reported for many samples. The water samples were analyzed at the US Geological Survey's National Water Quality Laboratory in Arvada, Colorado. Methods used to collect the water samples and quality assurance instituted for the sampling program are described. Concentrations of chromium equaled or exceeded the maximum contaminant level at 12 ground-water quality monitoring wells. Other trace elements did not exceed their respective maximum contaminant levels.
#|Litke, D W ; Pocernih, M J.  Nutrient loads from wastewater-treatment plants in the South Platte River Basin.  INTEGRATED WATERSHED MANAGEMENT IN THE SOUTH PLATTE BASIN: STATUS AND PRACTICAL IMPLEMENTATION. PROCEEDINGS OF THE 1994 SOUTH PLATTE FORUM, OCTOBER 26-27, 1994, GREELEY, COLORADO.  Klein, K C ; Williams, D J  (eds ).  FORM. SER. COLORADO WATER RESOUR. RES. INST. no. 77 p. 30, 1994.  To manage nutrient loads in rivers, point and nonpoint sources of loads need to be quantified. Point-source loads can be estimated using data from wastewater-treatment plants and then compared to instream loads measured at water-quality-monitoring sites. As part of the National Water-Quality Assessment (NAWQA) Program, data were collected during 1994 in an effort to improve estimates of nutrient loads in the South Platte River Basin. Effluent nutrient data for 1993 were compiled from 30 wastewater-treatment plants in the basin. Ammonia routinely was measured at 96 percent of the plants, nitrite plus nitrate at 27 percent, and organic nitrogen at 11 percent. Total phosphorus routinely was measured at 19 percent of the plants and orthophosphate at 4 percent. Methods were developed for estimating nutrient loads for each nutrient species, and nutrient loads were estimated for each treatment plant. During April 1994, samples were collected at 60 surface-water sites in the basin to determine nutrient species concentrations and to calculate instantaneous nutrient loads.  Total nitrogen loads in the South Platte River ranged from 84 pounds per day (lb/d) to 18,000 lb/d total phosphorus loads ranged from 10 to 3,200 lb/d. Highest loads were related to wastewater-treatment-plant discharges and agricultural land use. Loads decreased downstream from point sources due to diversion of water and instream processes.
#|Litke,-D.W. Use of geographic information systems in a water-quality assessment project. 1993 South Platte Forum, Fort Collins, CO (USA) 27-28 Oct 1993.  SEEKING AN INTEGRATED APPROACH TO WATERSHED MANAGEMENT IN THE SOUTH PLATTE BASIN. Klein,-K.C.; Williams,-D.J. (eds.)  COLORADO STATE UNIVERSITY, FORRT COLLINS, CO.  COLORADO WATER RESOURCES RESEARCH INSTITUTE. 1993 p. 55.  INFORM.-SER.-COLORADO-WATER-RESOUR.-RES.-INST. vol. 76, 1993.  A geographic information system (GIS) is being used to assist in the design and implementation of the U.S. Geological Survey National Water Quality Assessment Program (NAWQA) at the national- and the basin-study scale. Nation-wide data sets, such as hydrologic-unit boundaries, population density, crop types, physiographic provinces, and ecoregions, have been used to partition study units into homogeneous subareas for water-quality sampling. More spatially accurate versions of these data sets are being developed at the basin-study scale to evaluate the relation between water-quality data and available geographic data. In addition to geographic analysis, the GIS is useful for establishing a common database for individuals working on different aspects of the project. Spatial data can be displayed in a variety of ways, which enhances the flow of information and ideas between project personnel with different specialties.
#|Loll, C.M.  300 Area TEDF NPDES Permit Compliance Monitoring Plan.  Department of Energy, Washington, DC.  Contract Number: WHC-SD-L045H-PLN-004, Contract AC06-87RL10930.  NTIS/DE95002070, 29p.  TD3:  This monitoring plan describes the activities and methods that will be employed at the 300 Area Treated Effluent Disposal Facility (TEDF) in order to ensure compliance with the National Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit.  Included in this document are a brief description of the project, the specifics of the sampling effort, including the physical location and frequency of sampling, the support required for sampling, and the Quality Assurance (QA) protocols to be followed in the sampling procedures.
#|Loumbourdis NS; Wray D.  Heavy-metal concentration in the frog Rana ridibunda from a small river of Macedonia, Northern Greece.  ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL, 1998, V24, N4 (MAY), P427-431.  The concentration of 14 heavy metals in the tissues of the frog Rana ridibunda, living in a small river of Macedonia, Northern Greece was investigated. The liver contained significantly higher amounts of copper (1041+/-153 mg/kg dry wt), cobalt (6+/-0.1 mg/kg), molybdenum (22+/-7 mg/kg), chromium (41+/-11 mg/kg), and cadmium (2+/-0.2 mg/kg), while the carcass contained significantly higher amounts of aluminum (303+/-67 mg/kg), manganese (164+/-38 mg/kg), nickel (27+/-3 mg/kg), strontium (419+/-34 mg/kg), and barium (93.1+/-1 mg/kg). High concentrations of copper, chromium, molybdenum, zinc, manganese, and aluminum, corresponding to the highly polluted areas, were detected.  For some other metals, such as cobalt, nickel, lead, cadmium, and cesium, the river could be classified as moderately to heavily polluted. The main sources of the river pollution seem to be fertilizers containing heavy metals as trace elements, pesticides with a heavy metal in their formula, urban runoff, and various light industries along the river that discharge their effluents into this river. It seems likely that the Central Macedonia area shares common sources of pollution for a number of heavy metals.
#|Lowell, R B ; Culp, J M ; Wrona, F J ; Bothwell, M L. Effects of pulp mill effluent on benthic freshwater invertebrates: Food availability and stimulation of increased growth and development.  ENVIRONMENTAL FATE AND EFFECTS OF PULP AND PAPER MILL EFFLUENTS. Servos, M R ; Munkittrick, K R ; Carey, J H ; van der Kraak, G J  (eds ).  pp. 525-532, 1996.  International Conference on Environmental Fate and Effects of Bleached Pulp Mill Effluents: Vancouver, British Columbia (Canada), 1994 Nov 6-10.  ST. LUCIE PRESS:  DELRAY BEACH, FL.  The potential short- and long-term responses of benthic river invertebrates to biotreated bleached kraft pulp mill effluent are illustrated in a review of two recent experimental and statistical analyses. To determine short-term responses, mayflies (Baetis tricaudatus Dodds) were exposed in artificial streams to control river water, 1% effluent, or 10% effluent while controlling periphyton food levels (low versus high food availability). After 2 wk, exposure to the effluent stimulated significant increases in growth and development of the experimental animals. This stimulation was greater than could be accounted for by differences in algal food availability. This suggests that the effluent may have (1) increased the nutritive value of the food, (2) stimulated an increase in mayfly feeding, and/or (3) directly stimulated increased mayfly growth by way of hormonal or other metabolic effects. Multivariate analysis (ordination) of the abundances of benthic invertebrates sampled over a 20-year period downriver of the pulp mill revealed that five families of stoneflies, caddisflies, and mayflies (including Baetidae) were more abundant in years when the mill output of suspended solids was greater. This positive correlation should be viewed with caution, however, until more direct evidence is available on the mechanism of the long-term effects of pulp mill effluent on river invertebrates.
#|Lowell, R B ; Culp, J M ; Wrona, F J.  Stimulation of increased short-term growth and development of mayflies by pulp mill effluent.  ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY vol. 14, no. 9, pp. 1529-1541, 1995.  To determine the food-dependent effects of biologically treated, bleached-kraft pulp mill effluent on mayfly (Baetis tricaudatus Dodds) growth and development, mayflies were exposed to effluent for 2 weeks within artificial streams arranged in a 2 x 3 factorial design (two periphyton food levels - low, high three concentrations - control river water, 1% effluent, 10% effluent). Although survival was not affected, the effluent had a significant stimulatory effect on growth (resulting in 20 to 50% greater body weight) and development of the wing pads. Furthermore, the initial growth and development trajectories suggest that effluent-exposed mayflies may emerge sooner and at a larger size than nonexposed individuals. A key result was that the stimulatory effects occurred within both the low- and high-food treatments. Thus, the effluent-exposed mayflies grew faster than even the high-food control animals, which already had access to more food than they could eat throughout the experiment. This shows that the stimulatory effect of the effluent on the mayflies involved more than just an increase in food availability due to enhanced algal growth in response to nutrients in the effluent. Three possible mechanisms for this growth-enhancement effect are that the effluent (a) increased the nutritive value of the food, (b) enhanced the palatability of the periphyton, inducing increased mayfly feeding, and/or (c) directly stimulated increased mayfly growth via hormonal or other growth-stimulation effects. Further work is required to determine whether the growth stimulation occurred at the expense of future reproductive output.
#|Lowell-R.B.; Culp-J.M.; Wrona-F.J. Stimulation of increased short-term growth and development of the mayfly, Baetis tricaudatus, from the Thompson River basin following exposure to biologically treated pulp mill effluent. Environment Canada. Science Branch, North Vancouver, (British Columbia). 1994. 82p. This report summarizes a portion of the ongoing Fraser River Action Plan investigations of pulp mill effluent effects on aquatic life. The report presents the results of a toxicity experiment using bleached kraft mill effluent from a mill on the Thompson River in Kamloops, British Columbia. This effluent has the potential for both nutrient enrichment and toxic effects on aquatic ecosystems. The experiment was designed as a first attempt to examine the relative nature of these two effects as determined by the response to the effluent of the mayfly, an abundant benthic macroinvertebrate in the river. Food-dependent effects were determined by exposing the mayflies to effluent for two weeks within artificial streams arranged in a 2x3 factorial design. Responses measured included survival, growth, and development. Possible mechanisms for the responses are discussed.
#|Lowham, H. W. Characteristics of fluvial systems in the plains and deserts of Wyoming.  Cheyenne, Wyo. : Denver, Colo. : U.S. Dept. of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey.  1993.  Water-resources investigations report ; 91- 4153.
#|Lowry,-M.E.; Smalley,-M.L. Hydrology of Park County, Wyoming, exclusive of Yellowstone National Park. 1993. 58 pp. Water Resources Investigation Report: 93-4183. Unconsolidated deposits are a principal source of ground water in Park County. However, the presence of water in deposits topographically higher than stream level depends on recharge from surface water used for irrigation. Terraces that are not irrigated, such as Polecat Bench, do not have saturated deposits from which water can be obtained. Water in the unconsolidated deposits, although dependent upon infiltration of applied surface water, is of poorer quality than the applied surface water because of solution of salts as the water moves through the soil. The conversion of irrigated agricultural land to urban development poses problems in some areas because yields of water-supply wells will be adversely affected by reduced recharge. Water in unconsolidated deposits is at shallow depths, thus, the trend toward urban development increases the risk of contamination from septic tanks, petroleum products, and accidental spills of toxic and hazardous wastes. Ground water suitable for domestic use is difficult to obtain in some areas where it is needed because of poor yields and poor quality in shallow aquifers. Large areas suitable for urban development are underlain by thick shales that have low well yields and poor water quality. Folding of rocks during the mountain-forming process in western Wyoming has resulted in some of the aquifers being too deeply buried to be considered as a source of water for either domestic or stock supplies. Although many of these aquifers may contain water of good quality near the surface, the quality usually becomes poorer with depth and is not suitable for domestic use. Ground water is present throughout most of the county and most ground-water flow stays within the county. A small, unquantified amount of water flows through the county in the aquifers. The aquifers are continuous from the edges of the mountains into the badlands and plains and beyond county boundaries. The climate of Park County varies from alpine tundra to desert. Altitudes range from 12,000 feet above sea level in the mountains to 4,015 feet where the Clarks Fork Yellowstone River flows into Montana. Annual precipitation averages up to 40 inches in the mountains, but only 6 inches near the eastern edge of the county. Perennial streams in the county originate in the mountains; streams originating in badlands and plains are ephemeral unless they drain an area irrigated by surface water so that return flow is sustained during the winter. The average annual runoff of streams that originate in the mountains is as large as 598 acre-feet per square mile; for streams that originate in the badlands and plains, annual runoff is as low as 14.8 acre-feet per square mile
#|Ludwig James P; Auman Heidi J; Weseloh D V; Fox Glen A; Giesy John P; Ludwig Matthew E.  Evaluation of the effects of toxic chemicals in Great Lakes Cormorants: Has causality been established? Colonial Waterbirds  18 (SPEC. ISSUE 1):p60-69 1995.  Toxic contaminants have influenced Double-crested Cormorant (Phalacrocorax auritus) reproduction on the Great Lakes for at least three decades. Four recent studies of contaminants in cormorants of the Great Lakes region are reviewed for their conformation with epidemiological criteria used to infer cause and effect linkages (CELs). Growth of the population was interrupted by DDT which led to egg-shell thinning and reduced reproduction which hid other developmental problems that were most likely caused by planar PCB, dioxin and furan contaminants. Three studies investigated embryo viability and deformities in the post-DDT era. A study of the effects of planar contaminants measured by the H4IIE bioassay technique on egg viability was judged to be strong demonstration of contaminant effects on the cormorant population. Two studies of bill defects and the co-occurrence of embryonic abnormalities with specific toxic PCB and dioxin congeners as cormorant teratogens were found to have weaknesses, but were consistent with the paradigm that planar chlorinated hydrocarbons (PHHs), especially the non-ortho-substituted PCB congeners, are now the most important toxic chemical problem for cormorants in the Great Lakes. The rapid uptake of PHHs and great interspecific variations of sensitivity to effects of these chemical between Larids and cormorants have been observed. These biochemical differences and high cormorant fecundity help account for the rapid recovery of cormorants on the Great Lakes. PHHs have relatively trivial impacts on cormorant populations, but do cause significant damage to individuals in a dose-dependant manner. Congener-specific and bioassay techniques support the development of a new toxic chemical paradigm with large implications to policy, management and water quality criteria used to make regulatory decisions. Cormorants may have actually benefitted from exposure to toxic contaminants in their competition with large gulls (Larus spp.) on the Great Lakes in the post-DDT era.
#|Luek Wong, S ; Wainwright, J F ; Nakamoto, L.  Monitoring toxicity in four wastewaters in the Bay of Quinte, Lake Ontario.  JOURNAL OF GREAT LAKES RESEARCH vol. 21, no. 3, pp. 340-352, 1995.  In 1993, as part of the Bay of Quinte Remedial Action Plan program, the toxicity of four wastewater discharges (two from municipal STPs, one from a chemical company, and one from a pulp and paper company) was monitored in the Bay of Quinte, Lake Ontario. Sequential dilutions of the test effluents were utilized in algal assays to estimate effluent toxicity at 100% effluent concentration. The toxicity estimated was expressed as mu M/L Cu equivalents. Among the four discharges tested, the paper processing effluent was the most toxic at about 100 times the sensitive level (the concentration above which delicate algal and invertebrate species would not survive). STP-I wastewater was not toxic. The toxicity of both the chemical company and STP-II wastewaters fluctuated in and out of the sensitive zone.  Chlorella cells harvested after six days exposure to the industrial wastewaters sustained fine structural damage caused by organic toxicants, while those incubated with municipal STP wastewaters exhibited damage due to metals. In the absence of organic toxicity in STP-II wastewater, a negative correlation between P oncentration and metal toxicity was obtained (r super(2) = 0.99).
#|Lyons J.  Patterns in the species composition of fish assemblages among Wisconsin streams.  ENVIRONMENTAL BIOLOGY OF FISHES 45: (4) 329-341 APR 1996.  To better understand patterns of fish assemblage composition in Wisconsin streams in relation to major environmental gradients, I carried out multivariate direct gradient analysis (canonicalcorrespondence analysis) of two large independent datasets on fish species abundance in Wisconsin streams. Analysis of the two datasets yielded similar results, suggesting that observed patterns and relationships were real. Stream sites were distributed along fish species-environment gradients, but segregation into distinct stream temperature and geographic groups was also evident. The strongest gradient in both datasets was related to summer water temperature patterns, and encompassed a transition from small, coldwater streams dominated by salmonids, cottids, certain cyprinids, and few other species, to both small and large, warmwater streams dominated by a high diversity of different cyprinids, catostomids, ictalurids, centrarchids, and percids. A second gradient in both datasets was complex but largely geographic. Within it,sites from each of the four ecoregions that occupy Wisconsin formed fairly discrete groups. The strongest differences were between sites in the two southern Wisconsin ecoregions, the Driftless Area and the Southeastern Wisconsin Till Plains, that were dominated by certain cyprinids, ictalurids, and centrarchids, and sites in the two northern Wisconsin ecoregions, the North Central Hardwood Forests and the Northern Lakes and Forests, that were dominated by a different set of cyprinids and ictalurids, plus some petromyzontids, salmonids, catostomids, and percids. Sites from the Driftless Area that were mostly higher-gradient (steep stream slope) and had many riffle-dwelling species could also be distinguished from sites inthe Southeastern Wisconsin Till Plains that were mostly lower-gradient and had many pool-dwelling species. The patterns of fish assemblage composition among sites and the associated fish species-environment relationships that were revealed by the analyses provided a framework for developing an ecologically meaningful hierarchical classification of Wisconsin stream sites based on stream thermal regime, ecoregion, stream size, and stream gradient.
#|Lyons WB, Wayne DM, Warwick JJ, Doyle GA.  The Hg geochemistry of a geothermal stream, Steamboat Creek, Nevada: natural vs. anthropogenic influences.  ENVIRONMENTAL GEOLOGY  34: (2-3) 143-150 MAY 1998.  A series of water samples from Steamboat Creek, Nevada, was analyzed for total mercury concentrations. Concentrations from these waters were 40 to 60 times higher than the pristine mountain streams entering the creek. The major source of the mercury entering Steamboat Creek is probably from gold/silver processing that took place in the 1960s.
#|Lyons, J ; Navarro Perez, S ; Cochran, P A ; Santana, E C ; Guzman Arroyo, M.  Index of biotic integrity based on fish assemblages for the conservation of streams and rivers in west-central Mexico.  CONSERVATION BIOLOGY vol. 9, no. 3, pp. 569-584, 1995.  The rivers and streams of west-central Mexico are becoming increasingly degraded and warrant expanded conservation efforts. We have developed an index of biotic integrity based on fish assemblage characteristics to aid in the preservation of the biological integrity and biodiversity of these waters. Our version is an adaptation of previous versions of the index of biotic integrity, which have proven effective in environmental assessment and monitoring in the United States and elsewhere. It consists of 10 fish assemblage attributes, termed metrics, that are related to environmental quality, ecosystem integrity, and biodiversity in west-central Mexican streams and rivers: number of native species, percentage of benthic species, number of water column species, number of sensitive species, percentage of tolerant species, percentage of exotic species, percentage of omnivores, percentage of native livebearing species, relative abundance, and percentage of diseased or deformed. Data on fish communities from 27 sites on streams and small rivers in the vicinity of the Sierra de Manantlan, southwestern Jalisco, and in the upper Rio Duero basin, northern Michoacan, were used to develop expectations and scoring criteria for each metric. The index value for a site was the sum of the scores for the 10 metrics. Index values and associated ratings of biotic integrity for the 27 sites corresponded closely with independent ratings based on habitat and water quality. However, additional tests of the index with independent data and refinement of metrics and scoring criteria are clearly warranted. The index shows promise for identifying key watersheds for the protection of intact native biotic communities and individual endangered and threatened species and for the long-term monitoring and evaluation of biodiversity and ecosystem integrity in the streams and rivers of west-central Mexico. Our version could serve as a model for the development of similar indices for other regions and other types of aquatic ecosystems in Mesoamerica.
#|Ma, Juntao. Tissue-specific bioenergetic effects and increased enzymatic activities following acute sublethal peroral exposure to cyanide in the mallard duck.  TOXICOL. APPL. PHARMACOL. vol. 142, no. 2, pp. 297-302, 1997.  Protection of wildlife and in particular migratory birds, which are protected by the Migratory Bird Treaty Act, from cyanide waste in and around gold mining operations is an important environmental issue. We have investigated the bioenergetic effects of sublethal peroral cyanide exposure using the mallard duck (Anus platyrhynchos) as a model migratory bird. At cyanide concentrations well below levels considered safe by the mining industry and some regulatory agencies (50 ppm weak acid dissociable (WAD) cyanide) significant depletions of heart, liver, and brain tissue ATP levels were observed. Tissue ATP levels were restored to normal by 24 hr postexposure. Rhodanese and 3-mercaptopyruvate sulfur-transferase activities were determined in these tissues both for basal activity and post-cyanide exposure. Only brain tissue showed increased enzymatic activity following cyanide exposure, suggesting tissue-specific regulation of these enzymatic activities. These studies suggest that 50 ppm WAD cyanide is not a safe level of cyanide in water where avian wildlife exposure can occur.
#|MacDonald, D. D., Ikonomou, M. G., Rantalaine, A. L., Rogers, I. H., Sutherland, D., & Van Oostdam, J. (1997).  Contaminants in white sturgeon (Acipenser transmontanus) from the upper Fraser River, British Columbia, Canada.  ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY vol. 16, no. 3, pp. 479-490.  Four white sturgeon were collected from the upper Fraser River near Prince George, British Columbia, Canada, in the fall of 1991 and 1992. Two additional fish were taken from the Fraser River near Williams Lake, some 250 km downstream of Prince George. Samples of white muscle, red muscle, liver, and roe were analyzed for metals, polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs), non-ortho and mono-ortho polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and chlorophenols to determine whether the tissues of this species were acceptable for human consumption. The concentrations of mercury in the white muscle and liver of several fish from the upper Fraser River exceeded the provincial tissue residue criteria for people who consumed low quantities of fish (i.e., 210 g wet weight/week). The concentrations of PCDDs, PCDFs, and coplanar PCBs (expressed as 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin toxic equivalents) in red muscle and liver of these fish exceeded the Health Canada working guidelines for the protection of human health. By comparison, white sturgeon collected in the lower Fraser River had much lower concentrations of metals and organic contaminants. The differences in contaminant burdens in fish from the two widely separated reaches of the river reflect their proximity to or distance from known contaminant sources.
#|Macek-Rowland,-K.M.; Lent,-R.M.  Variations in land use and nonpoint-source contamination on the Fort Berthold Indian Reservation, West-Central North Dakota, 1990-93.  Water-Resources Investigations Report: 96-4007. 33p.  The effects of land-use activities on the water quality of five streams on the Fort Berthold Indian Reservation were evaluated. The five basins evaluated were East Fork Shell Creek, Deepwater Creek, Bear Den Creek, Moccasin Creek, and Squaw Creek. East Fork Shell Creek and Deepwater Creek Basins are located east of Lake Sakakawea and Bear Den Creek, Moccasin Creek, and Squaw Creek Basins are located west of the lake. Land-use data for the five selected basins on and adjacent to the Fort Berthold Indian Reservation were obtained for 1990-92. Discharge measurements were made and water-quality samples were collected at stations and sites on each of the five streams during October 1991 through September 1993. Analysis of land-use data indicated that prairie was the largest land-use category in the study area. More prairie acreage was found in the basins located west of Lake Sakakawea than in the basins located east of the lake. Wheat was the predominant crop in the study area. More wheat acreage was found in the basins located east of Lake Sakakawea than in the basins located west of the lake. Discharge data for the five selected streams indicated that all of the streams were ephemeral and had many days of no flow during the study period. High flows were usually the result of spring runoff or intense storms over the basins. East Fork Shell Creek and Deepwater Creek with larger basins and flatter stream slopes had high flows characterized by rapidly rising flows and gradually receding flows. In contrast, Bear Den Creek, Moccasin Creek, and Squaw Creek with smaller basins and steeper stream slopes had high flows characterized by rapidly rising flows and receding flows of shorter duration. Analysis of water-quality samples indicated concentrations of nitrogen, phosphorus, and total organic carbon varied throughout the study area. Nitrogen concentrations were larger in the streams located east of Lake Sakakawea than in the streams located west of the lake. The largest nitrogen concentrations in all of the streams occurred during the nongrowing periods. Phosphorus (orthophosphate and total phosphorus) concentrations were larger in the streams located east of Lake Sakakawea than in the streams located west of the lake. The larger orthophosphate concentrations in the eastern streams may be indicative of insecticide application in the eastern streams' basins. Total organic carbon concentrations were fairly consistent in all five streams. Water-quality samples were analyzed for the pesticides atrazine, carbofuran, cyanazine, and 2,4-D by using immunoassay testing. Pesticide concentrations above the minimum reporting levels were more prevalent in samples from streams located east of Lake Sakakawea than in the streams located west of the lake. The eastern streams drain areas where herbicides were applied to crops. Fecal-bacteria concentrations were larger in the streams located west of Lake Sakakawea, where prairie is more dominant, than in the streams located east of the lake. The larger concentrations and loads were associated with intense storm events and the presence of livestock.
#|MacKay-WP; Zak-J; Whitford-WG.  Litter decomposition in a Chihuahuan desert playa.  American-Midland-Naturalist. 1992, 128: 1, 89-94.  Mass loss rates were compared for several types of litter (rabbit faeces, black grama grass (Bouteloua eriopoda) and creosotebush (Larrea tridentata) leaves, twigs and wood) in a flooded desert ephemeral playa in New Mexico, USA in 1984. Non-woody debris decomposed rapidly whereas wood and creosotebush twigs lost little mass during the 8 weeks that the playa contained water. Mass loss rates for rabbit faeces were lower than expected as the pellets remained intact. Approximately 25% of the mass was lost due to abiotic leaching. Predator exclusion significantly increased decomposition of creosotebush leaves but reduced mass loss of creosotebush twigs and black grama grass. The decomposition rates were within the range of those found in lakes but lower than rates typical for streams.
#|Maddalone, R F ; Scott, J W ; Rice, J K ; Nott, B R. Impact on discharge monitoring of recent EPA initiatives in water quality measurement.  WATER, AIR, AND SOIL POLLUTION vol. 90, no. 1-2, pp. 245-255, 1996.  Int. Clean Water Conf.: Clean Water: Factors That Influence Its Availability, Quality and Its Use.  La Jolla, CA., 1995 Nov 28-30.  Human health and aquatic life requirements can result in the establishment of effluent limitations on power plant aqueous discharges that are below the quantitation and even the detection capability of many of the current sampling and analytical procedures. To meet this situation for compliance monitoring, EPA has developed analytical methods that reportedly lower detection and quantitation levels by one to two orders of magnitude. Procedures to develop appropriate statistically-based detection and quantitation estimates for these methods are being developed by the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) and other industry and regulatory groups. EPA is also in the process of developing guidelines for performance based methods, which they believe will encourage innovation and speed the process of bringing new methods into use. This paper will discuss the impact of these proposed changes on the end user.
#|Magliette, R. J.; Doherty, F. G.; McKinney, D.; Venkataramani, E. S.  Need for Environmental Quality Guidelines Based on Ambient Freshwater Quality Criteria in Natural Waters-Case Study "Zinc".  Bull Environ Contam Toxicol  v54, n4, p626(7) Apr 95.  In natural waters, suspended solids and dissolved organic compounds are likely to contribute to additional removal of bioavailable zinc. The EPA national ambient freshwater quality criteria for Zn is 47 (gr)mg/l as a 24-h average, but it fails to account for the effect of site-specific water-quality parameters and resident aquatic-ecosystem sensitivity. Accordingly, water-effects ratios (WERs) will be used to compare the toxicity of a pollutant in an actual water site to its toxicity in laboratory water. Bioassays were conducted using Ceriodaphnia dubia, Daphnia magna, and larval fathead minnows. The assays indicated that C.  dubia was the most sensitive species tested to zinc bromide. The reductionin measured Zn concentration in the laboratory tests was due likely to the hardness of the standard laboratory water. The study results suggest questions in terms of the universal applicability of the EPA water-quality criteria for Zn, as there are no standard methods for measuring Zn speciation in natural waters. The WER can be used as an adjustment to obtain site-specific values that may either increase or decrease the numeric value of the criterion, which should address the issue of metal toxicity to fish and aquatic life in a direct manner, thereby assuring the protection of receiving streams.
#|MANNING TM, WILSON SP, & CHAPMAN JC. (1996). TOXICITY OF CHLORINE AND OTHER CHLORINATED COMPOUNDS TO SOME AUSTRALIAN AQUATIC ORGANISMS.  BULLETIN OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY, 56, N6, P971-976.
#|Maret TR, Robinson CT, Minshall GW.  Fish assemblages and environmental correlates in least-disturbed streams of the upper Snake River basin.  TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN FISHERIES SOCIETY 126: (2) 200-216 MAR 1997.  Fish assemblages and environmental variables were evaluated from 37 least-disturbed, 1st- through 6th-order streams and springs in the upper Snake River basin, western USA. Data were collected as part of the efforts by the U.S. Geological Survey National Water Quality Assessment Program and the Idaho State University Stream Ecology Center to characterize aquatic biota and associated habitats in least-disturbed coldwater streams. Geographically, the basin comprises four ecoregions. Environmental variables constituting various spatial scales, from watershed characteristics to instream habitat measures, were used to examine distribution patterns in fish assemblages. Nineteen fish species in the families Salmonidae, Cottidae, Cyprinidae, and Catostomidae were collected. Multivariate analyses showed high overlap in stream fish assemblages among the ecoregions.Major environmental factors determining species distributions in the basin were stream gradient, watershed size, conductivity, and percentage of the watershed covered by forest. Lowland streams (below 1,600 m in elevation), located mostly in the Snake River Basin/High Desert ecoregion, displayed different fish assemblages than upland streams (above 2,000 m elevation) in the Northern Rockies, Middle Rockies, and Northern Basin and Range ecoregions. For example, cottids were not found in streams above 2,000 m in elevation. In addition, distinct fish assemblages were found in tributaries upstream and downstream from the large waterfall, Shoshone Falls, on the Snake River. Fish metrics explaining most of the variation among sites included the total number of species, number of native species, number of salmonid species, percent introduced species, percent cottids, and percent salmonids. Springs also exhibited different habitat conditions and fish assemblages than streams. The data suggest that the evolutionary consequences of geographic features and fish species introductions transcend the importance of ecoregion boundaries on fish distributions in the upper Snake River basin.
#|Markowitz, D V. Total quality watersheds.  WATER ENVIRONMENT AND TECHNOLOGY vol. 8, no. 8, pp. 55-60, 1996. A total quality management approach requires effective goal setting and the ability to measure whether goals have been achieved. To adopt a total quality approach to watershed management, measurement of water quality must be continuous and provide a direct measure of impairment. It also must indicate probable causes. Effective measures of water quality enhance communication with stakeholders about solutions and address concerns about cost versus environmental benefit. The methods for evaluating water quality and National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System permit compliance have been debated since the Clean Water Act (CWA) was passed in 1972. Experience with water quality assessment confirms the need for realistic measurement techniques. Chemical measurements taken out of context of the receiving stream are not good indicators of water quality impact. Whole effluent toxicity testing is a valuable tool for identifying aquatic environment areas of concern, however, it does not distinguish specific causative factors without expensive additional testing procedures. In-stream biological surveys provide a "real world" measurement of the influence of point or nonpoint source pollution and indicate possible causes, but most states and river systems do not have goals established for biological community performance. These tools are not yet readily applicable to attainment criteria. Ohio is the only state with water quality criteria that include specific biological criteria. The results from Ohio projects show that these criteria are useful for managing water quality at the watershed level.
#|Marsh J.M. (1993). Assessment of nonpoint source pollution in stormwater runoff in Louisville, (Jefferson County) Kentucky, USA.  ARCH. ENVIRON. CONTAM. TOXICOL.;  25/4 (446-455). First flush (first 20 min) and composite (first 3 h) samples of stormwater runoff were collected during a 1-year period (1991-1992) from six sites in the Louisville, Kentucky (USA), metropolitan area. Each collection was analyzed for organic and inorganic compounds, pesticides, nutrients, dissolved solids, dissolved oxygen, turbidity, alkalinity, conductivity, hardness, pH, and temperature. The toxicity of the water was determined by bioassay of fathead minnows (Pimphales promelas Rafinesque). Mortality in the bioassay was most affected by low DO concentrations in the runoff. High concentrations of chlorides, methoxychlor, and endrin were measured at all the sites throughout the course of the study. Season and rainfall amount and frequency were also important factors affecting mortality. Dilution of toxins and nutrients occurred between the first flush runoff and the runoff at the end of storms, sometimes to below U.S. Federal criteria.
#|Martel,-P.H.; Kovacs,-T.G.; Voss,-R.H.  Effluents from Canadian pulp and paper mills: A recent investigation of their potential to induce mixed function oxygenase activity in fish. ENVIRONMENTAL FATE AND EFFECTS OF PULP AND PAPER MILL EFFLUENTS. Servos,-M.R.; Munkittrick,-K.R.; Carey,-J.H.; van-der-Kraak,-G.J. (eds.)  DELRAY BEACH, FL 33483 (USA)  ST. LUCIE PRESS.1996 pp. 401-412. Technological innovations such as modified and extended kraft cooking, improved chemical recovery, reduced water usage, elementa -chlorine-free bleaching and biological treatment of effluents have been widely implemented by the Canadian pulp and paper industry. This survey was undertaken to assess the mixed function oxygenase (MFO)-inducing potential of effluents discharged by mills at the current state of operating technology. Between December 1993 and June 1994, 46 effluent samples were obtained from 33 different pulp and paper mills. In the laboratory, rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) were exposed to a 10% (v/v) concentration of each effluent for 96 h. Hepatic ethoxyresorufin-o-deethylase (EROD) activity was assayed in effluent-exposed and control trout. Overall, 17 of the 46 samples caused no statistically significant increases in EROD activity, 10 samples caused statistically significant but less than or equal to 2-fold EROD inductions, while the remainder of the samples caused up to 15.5-fold induction. The EROD-inducing potential of effluents could not be linked to a particular bleaching or pulping process. For example, increased MFO activity was measured in trout exposed to some effluents from both unbleached and bleached kraft mills as well as thermomechanical and chemi-thermomechanical mills. Presently, the precise combinations of operating conditions that control the EROD-inducing potential of effluents from these mills are unclear.
#|Martienz-Jeronimo Fernando; Villasenor Rafael; Espinosa Felix; Rios Guillermo.  Use of life-tables and application factors for evaluating chronic toxicity of kraft mill wastes on Daphnia magna. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology  50 (3):p 377-384 1993.
#|Maruthanayagam,-C.; Krishnamoorthy,-P.; Subramanian,-P.  Effect of tannery effluent on the biochemical constituents of the freshwater prawn, Macrobrachium lamarrei lamarrei (H. Milne Edwards).  J.-ENVIRON.-BIOL. 1996  vol. 17, no. 4, pp. 285-294.  The effect of tannery effluent on the biochemistry of freshwater prawn Macrobrachium lamarrei lamarrei was studied. The experiment was designed for 120 hacute toxicity at different concentration of effluent such as 0.5, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0 and 3.5%. The tentative observation ending 24 h exposure with the tannery effluent concentration of 0 to 5% at on interval of 0.5% revealed that no mortality at 0.5% level and 100% mortality was observed above 3.5% level. During the experimental period the protein, carbohydrate and lipid content in the hepatopancreas, muscle and ovary of the animals were observed in every 24 h by sacrificing three treated animals in each concentration for analysis. The result revealed a gradual decrease in the proximate constituents of the animals in respect of duration and concentration.
#|Masnado R G, Geis S W, & Sonzogni W C.  Comparative acute toxicity of a synthetic mine effluent to Ceriodaphnia dubia, larval fathead minnow and the freshwater mussel Anodonta imbecilis.  Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 14 (11). 1995.  1913-1920.  To determine if water quality-based effluent limitations recommended for a proposed discharger would provide adequate protection of aquatic life, site-specific acute toxicity tests were performed. The proposed discharger studied was a mine to be located in northern Wisconsin. The mine's discharge would flow into the Flambeau River, a relatively pristine river that harbors endangered freshwater mussels. The toxicity effects of synthetic effluents, representing a mixture of five different metals under contrasting conditions of hardness, were tested on several different organisms. Results indicated that Ceriodaphnia dubia exhibited a much greater sensitivity to various mixtures of cadmium, hexavalent chromium, copper, nickel, and zinc than did either larval fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas) or the freshwater mussel Anodonta imbecilis. Mixtures of metals at the permitted discharge levels of individual metals were also found to be consistently toxic to C. dubia. Because C. dubia was found to be much more sensitive than A. imbecilis, an effluent safe for C. dubia should also be safe for A. imbecilis and the physiologically similar endangered mussels found in the river. Based on such testing, aquatic life toxicity-testing conditions and criteria suggested for the National Pollution Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit should be protective of C. dubia and, hence, other aquatic life such as endangered mussels. Overall, effluent limitations for proposed dischargers need to be based on the combined effect of complex effluents. Aquatic toxicity testing using synthetic effluents that approximate the expected discharge characteristics provides a viable approach to determining the limits for proposed dischargers of multiple pollutants.
#|Mason, R. P., & Sullivan, K. A. (1997). Mercury in Lake Michigan.  ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, vol. 31, no. 3, pp. 942-947. Mercury contamination of aquatic systems is an important worldwide health concern. Recent research has demonstrated that many freshwater lakes in North America, Europe, and Asia contain fish with elevated mercury (Hg) concentrations, i.e., concentrations that exceed state, federal, or international health guidelines. In the United States in the last decade, an ever-increasing number of states have issued health advisories for freshwater fish consumption, based primarily on the elevated Hg concentrations in piscivorous fish. In conjunction, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has lowered the reference dose for Hg in fish, based on EPA's Integrated Risk Information System, and many states in the United States - for example, Minnesota - have also lowered the acceptable criteria for Hg in fish. These regulatory actions have proven to be contentious and have led to a re-evaluation of the sources of Hg to U.S. waters and the factors controlling Hg accumulation in fish, as there are significant gaps in our knowledge of the sources of Hg to aquatic systems and the role of atmospheric deposition and anthropogenic emissions in providing "bioavailable" Hg to aquatic systems. Our data, collected in 1994 and 1995 from offshore waters during the EPA-sponsored Lake Michigan Mass Balance Study (LMMB), averaged 1.6 pM total Hg and are 2 orders of magnitude lower than these earlier data for similar sites in Lake Michigan. The concentration is more comparable to that of the open ocean. Historical contamination of samples likely accounts for the differences between our values and previous data, as has been found in Lake Michigan for some of the other trace metals, most obviously for lead. It has occurred even recently during the analysis of open ocean waters for trace metals. We report here the results obtained during the LMMB study. In addition to our charge under the project of measuring total and particulate Hg in the water column, we were able to collect and analyze invertebrate and fish samples for their total and methylmercury (MMHg) concentration. Water samples were also analyzed for MMHg. Here we present the overall data and discuss both a preliminary budget for Hg in Lake Michigan as well as discuss the bioaccumulation of Hg in Lake Michigan organisms. Our water column data will be discussed in further detail elsewhere.
#|Matthews, P J.  Water quality objectives: A tool to ensure environmental protection and wise expenditure.  RIVER BASIN MANAGEMENT FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT. PROCEEDINGS OF THE 7TH INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON RIVER BASIN MANAGEMENT, HELD IN KRUGER NATIONAL PARK, SOUTH AFRICA, 15-17 MAY 1995.  WATER SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY vol. 32, no. 5-6 pp. 7-14, 1995. The paper describes the relationship between politics, environment and economics as a background to the demands for managing environmental water and effluent qualifies. The alternatives to meet these demands are discussed and the approach using water quality objectives is identified as a technique which enables environmental protection and cost to be assessed together. Quality targets are set for environmental waters which ensure that the agreed uses of the water are protected. These targets can then be related to discharge standards. This provides a framework for priority planning and investment which separates the politics from science. The principles are exemplified by the practical experience of Anglian Water, an English Water Company (and the predecessor authority).
#|MATTHEWS, ROBIN.  ADELE FIELD TESTING OF ENVIRONMENTAL STRESS EFFECTS IN STREAMS USING MICROBIAL COMMUNITIES.  PH.D. 1981.  VIRGINIA POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE AND STATE UNIVERSITY.  Several methods for evaluating stress effects in stream communities were tested in Cedar Run and Wilson Creek, two small streams in southwest Virginia. The microbial community was found to have a balanced trophic structure that could be used to distinguish stressed from unstressed areas. Cedar Run receives sewage effluent from a secondary sewage treatment plant located near its headwaters. Stations were selected to include two stations upstream from the treatment facility and four stations downstream. Additional reference stations were located on Wilson Creek, an adjacent stream with relatively high macroinvertebrate diversity. The microbial community was sampled using polyurethane foam substrates, and analysed for ATP, chlorophyll a, dry weight and ash-free dry weight. The polyurethane substrates demonstrated a number of advantages over glass slide and rock substrates, including a larger species diversity (number of species), greater replicability of results and fewer sampling difficulties. Adenosine triphosphate and chlorophyll a measurements were determined to be best for measuring the microbial stress response. These measurements were converted into an Autotrophy Index (AI) which reflected the relative proportion of autotrophs and heterotrophs in the microbial community. Unstressed communities had low AIs, with a high proportion of autotrophs. The Cedar Run microbial community responsed to organic stress from the sewage treatment plant by increasing the proportion of heterotrophs, resulting in higher AIs. These changes were consistent over a one-year period and for three-, seven- and ten-day colonization periods. The stress response observed in the Cedar Run microbial trophic structure occurred concurrently with other physical, chemical and biological changes in the Cedar Run system. Physical and chemical measurements showed a typical sewage effluent effect, with increased nutrients (phosphate, ammonia, nitrate and sulfate) below the outfall. A slight oxygen sag was also observed, along with decreases in pH and alkalinity. Average temperatures increased due to warming effects from the treatment plant. Biological changes observed in the macroinvertebrate community were closely correlated with microbial trophic results, as were changes in bacterial counts and algal taxonomy. Diatoms and other algae reflected the chlorophyll a data, decreasing in species diversity below the outfall. Similarly, the bacterial numbers increased below the outfall, reflecting the increase in heterotrophic growth. The diversity and number ofmacroinvertebrate taxa decreased as the microbial AI increased. In addition, changes in the proportion of macroinvertebrate functional groups were related to the microbial AI values. The proportion of macroinvertebrate scrapers varied inversely with the microbial AIs, while collector-gatherers and collector-filterers increased in the heterotrophic portion of Cedar Run. The methods developed in Cedar Run and Wilson Creek were tested further in the Allegheny River at a site receiving industrial effluent. Results similar to those from Cedar Run were obtained from the Allegheny stations, athough variations were observed due to differences between the effluents. These data suggest that the methods developed in Cedar Run may be useful for field biomonitoring in a variety of systems.
#|Mayer, F.L., L.F. Marking, T.D. Bills, and G.E. Howe.  1994.  Physicochemical factors affecting toxicity in freshwater: hardness, pH, and temperature.  In J.L. Hamelink, P.F. Landrum, H.L. Bergman and W.H. Benson, eds., Bioavailability: Physical, Chemical, and Biological Interactions.  SETAC Special Publications Series, Lewis, Boca Raton, FL., pp. 5-22.
#|Mayers, R ; Segler, K.  Reclaiming Nevada's wastewater.  WORLDWATER AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING vol. 19, no. 2, pp. 16-17, 1996.  With an estimated 6000 people moving to the city every month for the past six years, Las Vegas is the fastest growing city in the US. This growth has placed enormous pressure on southern Nevada's limited water supplies. While water reclamation is not a new concept in the arid states of the south west, one city has developed a programme which treats effluent to three different qualities at one facility. The City of Henderson's water management programme provides treated effluent for irrigation, aquifer recharge, and replenishment to nearby Lake Mead. The City of Henderson, located in the Las Vegas Valley, has completed a $30M, 37.8Mld Water Reclamation Facility (WRF) to help meet its non-potable water needs. Designed by Montgomery Watson, the WRF provides secondary and tertiary treatment using effluent filtration, chemical phosphorus removal, and nitrification for ammonia removal.
#|Mazuelos,-N.; Toja,-J.; Guisande,-C.  Rotifers in Ephemeral Ponds of Donana National Park.  Hydrobiologia HYDRB8, Vol. 255/256, p 429-434, April 16, 1993.  Donana National Park is located in southwestern Spain near the mouth of the Guadalquivir River. The park has three distinct environmental areas: (1) a salt marsh, with silt-clay substrate, (2) stabilized dunes, and (3) mobile dunes, both of which have a sand substrate. The average yearly rainfall during the winter of 1989-90 was the highest recorded in 20 years, with 98.4 cm precipitation; as a result, a large number of ephemeral ponds were formed on the sand substrate. Thirty-two of these ponds were sampled at the end of January, 1990, and analyzed for their rotifer populations in an attempt for correlate rotifer groups with other biotic and abiotic characteristics of the ponds. A total of 34 rotifer species were identified. The distribution of only a few species was related to salinity, suspended matter, chlorophyll a, and total water protein concentrations. Only four species were found in more than 50% of the ponds. Most of the species needed high food concentrations. Most of the species correlated better with the possibilities for colonization than with the environmental conditions of the ponds.
#|MCCASKEY L; LAROCCO M.  COMPETENCY TESTING IN CLINICAL MICROBIOLOGY.  LABORATORY MEDICINE, 1995, V26, N5 (MAY), P343-349.  The Clincal Laboratory Improvement Amendments of 1988 mandate that clinical laboratories include competency assessment of testing personnel as part of their quality assurance activities. Most laboratory managers have little experience in designing and implementing competency assessment protocols, and they often must invest a significant amount of time and effort to meet the new regulatory requirement. This article describes a clinical microbiology laboratory's program for competency assessment The program uses a team approach for evaluation; employees help determine when the testing will occur and select procedures and instrument-related activities from a test menu for each evaluation period. Depending on the area being evaluated, some evaluations involve direct observation, some wet testing, and some written testing. The program was designed to not only satisfy the new regulations but also provide the laboratory with a useful continuing education and training tool.
#|MCCORMICK PV; CAIRNS J.  ALGAE AS INDICATORS OF ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE.  JOURNAL OF APPLIED PHYCOLOGY, 1994, V6, N5-6 (DEC), P509-526.  Despite an increased awareness by governments and the general public of the need for protecting all types of aquatic habitats, human impacts continue to impair the services that these ecosystems provide.  Increased monitoring activities that focus on all major biological compartments are needed to quantify the present condition of Earth's aquatic resources and to evaluate the effectiveness of regulations designed to rehabilitate damaged ecosystems. Algae are an ecologically important group in most aquatic ecosystems but are often ignored as indicators of aquatic ecosystem change. We attribute this situation both to an underappreciation of the utility of algal indicators among non-phycologists and to a lack of standardized methods for monitoring with algae.  Because of their nutritional needs and their position at the base of aquatic foodwebs, algal indicators provide relatively unique information concerning ecosystem condition compared with commonly used animal indicators. Algae respond rapidly and predictably to a wide range of pollutants and, thus, provide potentially useful early warning signals of deteriorating conditions and the possible causes. Algal assemblages provide one of the few benchmarks for establishing historical water quality conditions and for characterizing the minimally impacted biological condition of many disturbed ecosystems. Preliminary comparisons suggest that algal indicators are a cost-effective monitoring tool as well. Based on available evidence from field studies, we recommend development of taxonomic indicators based on diatoms (Bacillariophyceae) as a standardized protocol for monitoring ecosystem change. Both population- and community-level indices have inherent strengths, and limitations and information from both levels of biological organization should be utilized in tandem. However, further information concerning species tolerances to a variety of anthropogenic stressors is needed if autecological indices are to be used routinely for monitoring purposes. While functional measures (e.g. productivity) may also prove useful as monitoring tools, further investigation is required to characterize the reliability of alternative methodologies and to assess the consistency of these indicators under varying field conditions.
#|McCutcheon, S. C. ; Martin, J. L. ; Barnwell, T. O. Water Quality.  AScI Corp., Athens, GA. Report No.: EPA/600/A-93/036, 1993, 75p.  Handbook of Hydrology, p11.1-11.73 1993. Water quality is important not only because of its linkage to the availability of water for various uses and its impact on public health, but also because water quality has an intrinsic value. The quality of life is often judged on the availability of pristine water. Contamination of water deprives present and future generations of a birthright. There is also the need to preserve the aquatic habitats of fish, birds, and mammals. To assist the practicing hydrologist in planning for and adapting to limitations on the use of water and to aid in the protection of valuable water resources, the chapter covers the basic concepts of water chemistry, the physical properties of water, and the constituents or impurities of water. To aid in the interpretation of measurements, water quality standards and criteria for various uses are presented.
#|McFaddin, M.A. The oil and gas waste exemption from the federal hazardous waste program.  J. ENVIRON. PERMITTING  VOL. 3, NO. 3, pp. 363-376, 1994. This article will examine the effect of certain exemptions from the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) of 1976, as amended by the Solid Waste Disposal Act of 1980 and the Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments of 1984, on oil and gas exploration, development, and production activities.  Specifically, the various exemptions from the RCRA hazardous waste program that may apply to oilfield operations, including the scope of the present oil and gas waste exemption, will be addressed. Because the oil and gas waste exemption is limited in scope and many oil and gas operators generate nonexempt oil and gas exploration and production (E&P) wastes that are subject to the federal hazardous waste program, including used oil, spent solvents, paint wastes, and off-specification chemical products, it is important to examine in detail EPA's interpretation of the scope of this exemption. In addition, the exemptions afforded to operators that discharge wastewater through NPDES-permitted outfalls or into permitted Class I underground injection wells or that recycle their wastes incertain prescribed ways will be discussed.
#|McInnis-J.; Rae-S.  Planning for NPDES Permit compliance to meet changing stream standards at Los Alamos National Laboratory.  New Mexico conference on the environment, Albuquerque, NM (United States), 24-26 Apr 1994. Department of Energy, Washington, DC. In New Mexico, the application of water quality based effluent limitations in NPDES Permit has recently begun, as the pre-1987 technology-based permits are expiring and permittees are attempting to renew their permits. Water quality standards and water quality-related effluent limitations can require levels of treatment considerable higher than those required by technology-related effluent limitations. The Clean Water Act does not set specific minimums for state standards, instead the regulations require that such standards specify and protect appropriate water uses (e.g, water suppley fisheries, wildlife, irrigation and recreation) and set specific numerical criteria where possible to attain these ends. Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL) has begun an aggressive program to meet the more stringent effluents limitations of the future. The Laboratory's current NPDES Permit allows discharge of effluent from approximately 130 separate outfalls into ephemeral streams. Similar quality outfalls are grouped into eight categories with each category having set effluent limits. LANL's near-future compliance strategy includes outfall elimination through the consolidation of outfalls of the same category, and the elimination of non-essential discharges. Also, LANL is planning the development of managed wetlands as a means to improve the local riparian habitat, and to contain effluent discharges within the Laboratory boundary. The longer-term strategy calls for reducing effluent discharges to zero. Zero discharge will be achieved through land application/irrigation and conservation through effluent re-use with evaporation of non-reusable discharges. One reuse program is currently underway, where sanitary wastewater effluent is recycled and used in a number of cooling water applications. Other reuse options may include recycling once-through cooling water through a number of process.
#|McKinney, A D ; Wade, D C.  Comparative response of Ceriodaphnia dubia and juvenile Anodonta imbecillis to pulp and paper mill effluents discharged to the Tennessee River and its tributaries.  ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY vol. 15, no. 4, pp. 514-517, 1996.  The responses of Ceriodaphnia dubia (daphnid) in a 7-d chronic daily-renewal bioassay and 6-d-old juvenile Anodonta imbecillis (paper pondshell mussel) in a 9-d acute daily-renewal bioassay are compared. Values for relative sensitivity to selected complex, industrial, whole-effluent samples were generated following determination of either observed or calculated no-observable-effect concentrations (NOEC).  Results from tests using effluents from six pulp and paper products facilities in the Tennessee River Valley indicate that A. imbecillis juveniles are substantially more sensitive than C. dubia to selected effluents. It is suggested that a juvenile mussel bioassay should be used to assess the toxicity of effluent releases to waters with freshwater mussel resources.
#|McKinnon-L.M.  AOX as a regulatory parameter: A scientific review of AOX toxicity and environmental fate. BC Environment. Environmental Protection Dept., Victoria (British Columbia). 1994. 133p. This report reviews the formation of adsorbable organic halogens (AOX) in the kraft mill process, the reduction of AOX discharges, methods for characterising AOX, the properties and composition of AOX, and the toxicity and environmental fate (bioaccumulation, transformation, and distribution) of AOX. It includes summaries of whole-AOX toxicity studies and molecular weight AOX, including the correlation between AOX levels and toxicity. The report ends with a discussion of the limitations of AOX as a regulatory parameter and the adequacy of effluent regulations based on AOX or alternatives.
#|McLoughlin Aiden J.  Controlled release of immobilized cells as a strategy to regulate ecological competence of inocula.  Advances in Biochemical Engineering Biotechnology; Biotechnics/wastewater. Fiechter A.  Advances in Biochemical Engineering Biotechnology  51p1-45 1994.  Springer-Verlag, New York.
#|Mcmahon G. Harned DA . EFFECT OF ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING ON SEDIMENT, NITROGEN, AND PHOSPHORUS CONCENTRATIONS IN ALBEMARLE-PAMLICO DRAINAGE BASIN, NORTH CAROLINA AND VIRGINIA, USA.  Environmental Management. 22(6):887-903, 1998 Nov-Dec. Environmental settings were defined, th rough an overlay process, as areas of coincidence between categories of three mapped variables-land use, surficial geology, and soil drainage characteristics. Expert judgment was used in selecting factors thought to influence sediment and nutrient concentrations in the Albemarle-Pamlico drainage area. This study's findings support the hypothesis that environmental settings defined using these three variables can explain variations in the concentration of certain sediment and nutrient constituents. This finding underscores the importance of developing watershed management plans that account for differences associated with the mosaic of natural and anthropogenic factors that define a basin's environmental setting. At least in the case of sediment and nutrients in the Albemarle-Pamlico region, a watershed management plan that focuses only on anthropogenic factors, such as point-source discharges, and does not account for natural characteristics of a watershed and the influences of these characteristics on water quality, may lead to water-quality goals that are over- or underprotective of key environmental features and to a misallocation of the resources available for environmental protection
#|McMaster, M E ; Van der Kraak, G J ; Munkittrick, K R.  Biochemical basis for hormonal dysfunctions of fish exposed to organic wastes.  PROCEEDINGS OF THE 38TH CONFERENCE OF THE INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF GREAT LAKES RESEARCH. p. 30, 1995, May 28-Jun 1.  INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR GREAT LAKES RESEARCH: ANN ARBOR, MI.  During the 1980s it was proposed that the increased activity of mixed function oxygenase enzymes associated with exposure of fish to organic contaminants resulted in an increased clearance of endogenous steroid hormones and altered reproductive performance. Since MFO activity can be induced by a number of organic compounds, we were interested in determining whether fish exposed to different classes of organic compounds showed the same biochemical lesions. Studies conducted with white sucker at sites receiving effluent from both chlorinated and non-chlorinated pulp and paper mills showed both increases in MFO activity and decreased steroid levels. These reductions in steroid hormone levels were not directly related to an increased catalytic rate, but related to reductions in the steroid biosynthetic capacity of the ovarian follicle. Although the specific sites of disruption within the pathway change with the reproductive state of the fish, they were consistent between sites within season. Brown bullhead exposed to PAHs from steel mill effluents showed induced MFO activity, however changes in the steroid pathway were not consistent with pulp mill studies. Follow-up studies of both species collected at a similar site were used to examine the responses in terms of epidemiological principles.
#|Mead, Robert H.  Contaminants in the Mississippi River, 1987-92.  U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY CIRCULAR 1133.  Reston, Virginia, 1995.
#|Meador, Michael R.; Cuffney, Thomas F.; Gurtz, Martin E.  Methods for Sampling Fish Communities as a Part of the National Water-Quality Assessment Program.  USGS Open-File Report 93-104  (44), 1993.  Part of the Natl Water-Quality Assessment Program conducted by USGS involves assessing fish-community structure as it relates to water quality. Fish-community structure is described at sites representing selected environmental settings. An overview of the program is provided. The sampling design incorporates existing data with assessments of the fish community. Each of the methods designed to collect fish is selective for some component of the fish community and varies in its sampling efficiency. Electrofishing and seining are the two most used sampling methods. Other sampling methods include gill netting and hoop netting. During the sampling process, carbon dioxide is used to anesthetize the fish to minimize handling stress. Taxonomic identification is made, along with determinations of total and standard length, weight, and the presence of external anomalies, including skeletal deformities, eroded fins, lesions, tumors, diseases, and parasites.
#|Meintjes,-S.  Seasonal changes in the invertebrates community of small shallow ephemeral pans at Bain's Vlei, South Africa. HYDROBIOLOGIA 1996  vol. 317, no. 1, pp. 51-64.  Changes in invertebrate population numbers and composition were monitored in six small shallow ephemeral pans during four consecutive inundations of spring, summer and autumn 1988/1989. The community was generally characterized by crustaceans and was invaded by insect larvae in summer. Community changes and succession were prominent in spring but less so in summer and autumn. Large pans supported more species than small pans. During longer inundation there was less difference between the initial and the final population composition than during shorter inundation, although the total population density did not increase significantly. This indicated that population composition stabilized as inundation lengthened. Population changes of six representatives taxa were not correlated to changes in the physical and chemical characteristics of the water.
#|Meinz, L.  Albuquerque NPDES stormwater program and Menaul Detention Basin reconstruction.  THE FUTURE OF ALBUQUERQUE AND MIDDLE RIO GRANDE BASIN. PROCEEDINGS OF THE 39TH ANNUAL NEW MEXICO WATER CONFERENCE.  TECH. REP. NEW MEX. WATER RESOUR. RES. INST. vol. 290 pp. 361-362, 1995.  NEW MEXICO WATER RESOURCES RESEARCH INSTITUTE.  NEW MEXICO STATE UNIVERSITY.  The City of Albuquerque Public Works Department currently is involved in acquiring the municipal separate storm sewer system permit for stormwater discharge. Draft permits for municipal systems have been published by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), although the City of Albuquerque has not received a draft permit for the City system itself. The City anticipates that draft permits will be issued sometime in early to mid-1995. The Albuquerque Metropolitan Arroyo Flood Control Authority and the New Mexico State Highway Department will be co-permittees with the City of Albuquerque. The City also is presently involved in several activities related to implementing the NPDES Stormwater Program. The Public Works Hydrology Division is monitoring and testing in accordance with the original monitoring plan submitted to EPA as part of the Part II Application. Monitoring and testing is being done at five primary discharge points to the Rio Grande, and testing is being done for a full range of parameters including metals (total and dissolved), bacteria, nutrients, and organic materials. The program is being conducted by the City in cooperation with the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS).
#|Melcer, Henryk; Merrill, Douglas T.; Gerhardt, Matthew B.; Van Maltby, C.  Technical and economic feasibility assessment of metals reduction in pulp and paper mill wastewaters.  Proceedings of the 1998 TAPPI International Environmental Conference & Exhibit. Part 1 (of 3).  Vancouver, Can.  TAPPI Proceedings - Environmental Conference & Exhibit v 1. TAPPI Press, Norcross, GA, USA. p 291-302.  Pulp and paper mills may have to remove metals from wastewater streams to comply with limitations derived from the Great Lakes Initiative (GLI) surface water quality criteria of March, 1995. The metals in order of greatest to least concern are mercury, cadmium, copper, chromium, nickel, and zinc, and arsenic. Mercury poses a particularly severe compliance problem because dilution in the mixing zone cannot be considered in calculating its discharge limit, and the mercury criterion must be satisfied in the plant discharge. This study evaluated metal removal processes with potential to achieve the proposed metals limitations. This identified the electrocoagulation and insoluble sulfide processes with the greatest potential to reduce metals to GLI criteria. Cost analyses of these processes suggested total costs (capital plus operating and maintenance costs) in the range of dollar 0.40 to dollar 0.80 per 1000 gallons of water treated.  Applying the median production-normalized bleached kraft effluent flow value of 20,054 gal/ton from NCASI's 1996 Wastewater and Solid Waste Survey results in production-normalized costs of dollar 8 to dollar 16 per ton of pulp. Several process variations with potential for reducing costs below these levels were identified during the cost analysis.  Overall, it is less costly to treat a low-volume, more concentrated in-plant stream than to treat total mill effluent. In-plant treatment should be considered if the in-plant stream contains a high percentage of the total plant metals loading and the stream can be effectively treated.
#|Melching, C. S. & Yoon, C. G. K.  1996.  Key Sources of Uncertainty in QUAL2E Model of Passaic River.  J Water Resour Plan Manag-ASCE vol. 31, no. 3, pp. 942-947. Uncertainties in the stream water-quality models that have been developed to date make them difficult to use for decision making and planning. A strategy is described that was developed to assist in identifying the data required to reduce model-prediction uncertainty. First-order reliability analyses are used to define the model parameters that have the largest impact on model-prediction uncertainty, and to identify the constituents for which model-prediction uncertainties preclude the use of the models in question. These techniques are used to assess the application of the QUAL2E model for multiconstituent water-quality modeling on the Passaic River, NJ. Several different variables are considered, including dissolved oxygen, BOD, ammonia, and chlorophyll (gr)a.
#|Melville, G. E. Changes in the Pelagic Crustacean Zooplankton of High-Boreal Island Lake, Saskatchewan, Associated with Uranium Mining.  Environ Monitor Assess v34, n1, p45(14) Jan 95.  At Island Lake, which is a relatively small, shallow water body located in the high-boreal ecoclimatic region of northern Saskatchewan, Canada, changes in the open-water crustacean zooplankton community was characterized. Island Lake is the first lake downstream of a uranium mill-effluent discharge. Zooplankton samples collected in 1989 were compared with baseline samples collected during the same seasons in 1978 and 1979 before mining operations began. In terms of water quality, conductivity levels increased in an exponential manner throughout the early 1980s, after which the general trend of increasing levels occurred at a lower rate. Uranium levels peaked in 1984 and remained high in 1988, even though they had decreased somewhat. The zooplankton composition of the mid-June to mid-July community changed between the baseline years and 1989, although the number of species did not. There were more copepods, particularly calanoids, than cladocerans in 1978 and 1979, and vice verse in 1989. No calanoids remained at all in 1989. Species diversity in 1989 was less than half the diversity in 1978 and 1979, even though the same number of species was present. Zooplankton biomass in the mid-June to mid-July periods of 1978 and 1979 was almost an order of magnitude more than the biomass in the same period of 1989.
#|Mercer, I R G ; Barker, D E ; Khan, R A. Stress-related changes in cunner, Tautogolabrus adspersus, living near a paper mill.  BULLETIN OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY vol. 58, no. 3, pp. 442-447, 1997.  Several species of fish have been reported to be affected by the effluent discharged after bleaching of wood for the production of pulp and paper and linerboard products. The bleaching process uses either chlorine or sulphur derivatives, and the discharge includes dioxins, furans, resin acids and many other chemicals, some of which are believed to be toxic to aquatic life. Physiological irregularities reported in fish also include lesions, tainting, changes in growth, elevated levels of detoxifying enzymes, skeletal deformities, impaired reproduction and possibly mortality. These reports initially implicated dioxins and furans, byproducts of chlorine bleaching, as the main causes of the anomalies. But recent studies suggest that these manifestations also apply to fish living in areas where sulphite-bleaching is used, in a sulphite-bleaching study on winter flounder, Pleuronectes (Pseudopleuronectes) americanus, collected in the vicinity of a pulp and paper mill in Newfoundland reported skin lesions, tumours, impairment of growth, low hemoglobin and organ somatic indices, histopathology and changes in the parasite fauna. These abnormalities were not observed in samples collected at two reference sites. A study on longhorn Myoxocephalus octodecemspinosus and shorthorn (M. scorpius) sculpins sampled near the same pulp mill also reported some effects but these were less pronounced than in winter flounder. In view of these reports, the current study was conducted to ascertain whether or not changes occur in the tissues of cunner, (Tautogolabrus adspersus) an inshore, non-migratory species collected near the same pulp and paper mill in contrast to samples collected at the same up-current reference site. Since the cunner is a year-round, inshore resident living on or near the bottom in shallow waters, it has the potential of being an indicator of both short-and longterm changes in environmental conditions.
#|Michael, J.L.  Fowler, W.P.; Gibbs, H.L.; Fischer, J.B.  Water chemistry of ephemeral streams.  General technical report SO / Aug 1994. (112)  p. 186-190. USDA Forest Service, Southern Forest Experiment Station, Auburn, AL. [New Orleans, La.] : Southern Forest Experiment Station.  Paper presented at the symposium on "Ecosystem Management Research in the Ouachita Mountains:  Pretreatment conditions and preliminary findings," October 26-27, 1993, Hot Springs, Arkansas.
#|Milanova,-E.; Sithole,-B.B.  Acute toxicity to fish and solution stability of some biocides used in the pulp and paper industry. FOREST INDUSTRY WASTEWATER V. SELECTED PROCEEDINGS OF THE 5TH IAWQ INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON FOREST INDUSTRY WASTEWATERS, HELD IN VANCOUVER, BC, CANADA, 10-13 JUNE 1996. Hall,-E.R.; Colodey,-A.G. (eds.) 1997 pp. 373-380. Acute toxicities of four biocide compounds and their formulations to rainbow trout have been determined. The 96-hour LC50 values of bis-trichloromethyl-sulfone (BTMS), B-bromo- beta -nitrostyrene (BNS), methylene-bis-thiocyanate (MBT), and a mixture of isothiazolinones (ISO) were 0.02, 0.05, 0.09, and 0.2 ppm, respectively. Stabilities of individual compounds in an effluent and in aqueous solution have also been investigated. The results show that BNS and MBT were not stable, BTMS volatilized into the open atmosphere, and ISO remained stable under the experimental conditions employed.
#|Millburn, A.  Preserving water quality - the resource productivity factor. International Assoc. Water Quality, London, UK. Sustainable water resources management into the 21st century - policy and technological innovations. Commonwealth Water Forum. Technical papers. 7th International Drainage Workshop. Penang, Malaysia, 18 November 1997. Sustainable water resources management into the 21st century - policy and technological innovations. Commonwealth Water Forum. The causes of water pollution are largely the result of 'open loop' use of water inagriculture, industry and municipalities, allied to wasteful use of raw materials and electric power, and exacerbated by badly controlled discharge of waste water back into the environment. Wrongful, current attitudes and behaviours, inadequate regulatory regimes, fiscal policy, taxation and trade policy, all conspire to worsen the situation. Initiatives, such as: new thinking on regulatory regimes and taxation; new technology and techniques in urban water management; closed-loop, high resource productivity manufacturing; evolutionary revolutionary approaches in agriculture; may offer potential improvements in increasing productivity and minimising pollution.
#|Miller, A.; Ward, R.C.; Euse, R.  Waste minimization and stormwater management go hand in hand.  IND. WASTEWATER  VOL. 2, NO. 3, pp. 27-30, 1994.  A cooling water recycle system and an 18 million-gallon stormwater retention basin enabled a nonferrous metal foundry to eliminate its NPDES discharge and drastically reduce the volume of water required for plant operations, which involve the casting, milling and annealing of brass products.
#|MISHRA R, & SHUKLA SP. (1995). EFFECTS OF ENDOSULFAN ON BIOENERGETIC PROPERTIES OF SKELETAL-MUSCLE MITOCHONDRIA FROM THE FRESH-WATER CATFISH (CLARIAS-BATRACHUS).  COMPARATIVE BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY C-PHARMACOLOGY TOXICOLOGY & ENDOCRINOLOGY, V112, N2, P153-161. The effects of a sublethal concentration of an organochlorine pesticide endosulfan on fish skeletal muscle mitochondria oxidizing isocitrate and succinate in vivo and in vitro were investigated. The endosulfan depressed significantly State 3 rates and RCR with succinate, whereas it prevented completely the oxidation of isocitrate. The CCCP-uncoupled rates and State 4 rates of succinate oxidation remained unaffected by endosulfan. The activity of masked ATPase was significantly increased in presence of endosulfan. There was a progressive stimulatory effect of endosulfan on mitochondrial ATPase. The skeletal muscle fibres of endosulfan exposed fish undergo ultrastructural changes that are characterized by deformation of the myofibrils and disappearance of mitochondria. Summarizing, it can be stated that endosulfan exerts an inhibitory effect on electron transport and affects ATP synthetase complex leading to an impairment in mitochondrial bioenergetics, which can be correlated with marked ultrastructural alterations in the skeletal muscle fibres of the fish.
#|Mizell,-S.A.; French,-R.H.  Beneficial use potential of dry weather flow in the Las Vegas Valley, Nevada. WATER-RESOUR.-BULL. 1995  vol. 31, no. 3, pp. 447-462.  Historically ephemeral washes in the Las Vegas Valley have become perennial streams in the urbanized area, and the primary source of these perennial flows appears to be the overirrigation of ornamental landscaping and turf. Overirrigation produces direct runoff to the washes via the streets and results in high ground water levels in some areas. Elevated ground water levels result in discharge to the washes because of changes in the natural balance of the hydrologic system and construction site and foundation dewatering. In recognition of the resource potential of these flows within the Las Vegas Valley, of the potential for dry weather flows to convey pollutants from the Valley to Lake Mead, and of the need to characterize dry weather flows under the stormwater discharge permit program, the quantity and quality of dry weather flow in Flamingo Wash was investigated during the period September 1990 through May 1993. This paper focuses on the resource potential of the flow (quantity and quality) as it relates to the interception and use of this water within the Valley. Economic and legal issues associated with the interception and use of this resource are not considered here.
#|Monda D P; Galat D L; Finger S E; Kaiser M S.  Acute toxicity of ammonia (NH-3-N) in sewage effluent to Chironomus riparius: II. Using a generalized linear model.  Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology  28 (3):p 385-390 1995.  Toxicity of unionized ammonia (NH-3-N) to the midge, Chironomus riparius was compared, using laboratory culture (well) water and sewage effluent ( apprxeq 0.4 mg/L NH-3-N) in two 96-h, static-renewal toxicity experiments. A generalized linear model was used for data analysis. For the first and second experiments, respectively, LC-50 values were 9.4 mg/L (Test 1A) and 6.6 mg/L (Test 2A) for ammonia in well water, and 7.8 mg/L (Test 1B) and 4.1 m/L (Test 2B) for ammonia in sewage effluent.  Slopes of dose-response curves for Tests 1A and 2A were equal. but mortality occurred at lower NH-3-N concentrations in Test 2A (unequal intercepts). Response of C. riparius to NH-3 in effluent was not consistent. dose-response curves for tests 1B and 2B differed in slope and intercept. Nevertheless, C. riparius was more sensitive to ammonia in effluent than in well water in both experiments, indicating a synergistic effect of ammonia in sewage effluent. These results demonstrate the advantages of analyzing the organisms entire range of response, as opposed to generating LC-50 values, which represent only one point on the dose-response curve.
#|Monda, D P ; Galat, D L ; Finger, S E.  Evaluating ammonia toxicity in sewage effluent to stream macroinvertebrates: 1. A multi-level approach.  ARCHIVES OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY vol. 28, no. 3, pp. 378-384, 1995.  A multi-level approach incorporating instream biological response, water quality, and toxicity testing was used to evaluate the toxicity of ammonia in sewage effluent to macroinvertebrates in two Ozark border streams. Macroinvertebrate community compositions at sites upstream from effluent discharge were most similar, while communities at upstream vs downstream sites were least similar. Upstream sites had abundant mayflies, blackflies, and caddisflies, which were absent immediately below effluent discharge. Water quality was also different at upstream vs downstream sites and was significantly correlated with differences in macroinvertebrate communities (r super(2) = -0.66, P<0.05) when data for all months were combined. However, differences in water quality could not consistently be explained by ammonia, which contributed from <1% to 31% of total variation in water quality among sites. The failure of observed NH sub(3)-N concentrations to consistently explain differences in water quality and macroinvertebrate community composition among sites in field studies was corroborated by results of 96-h, static-renewal, ammonia toxicity tests conducted on Chironomus riparius in undiluted sewage effluent and well water.  Ammonia concentrations measured in-stream were not toxic to C. riparius in toxicity tests. By using a multi-level approach, a more realistic evaluation of ammonia toxicity in sewage effluent to macroinvertebrates was obtained than by using methods that focus on only one aspect of effluent toxicity.
#|Montien-Art, Bunyat; Nakazono, Takahiro; Okamoto, Chinobu; Odahara, Takeru; Kikuchi, Masatake; Kabata, Kiyotaka.  Seasonal change of zooplankton in the eutrophic Kumamoto Zoo basin.  Proceedings of School of Agriculture Kyushu Tokai University  17 (0):p49-59 1998  This paper describes a seasonal changes of zooplankton in the eutrophic Kumamoto Zoo basin from May 1996 to April 1997. Zooplankton taxa found in the basin were such as protozoan, rotifer, cladoceran, copepod, nauplii and copepod other than nauplii. A simple tentative model that permits significant correlation was developed. Community level effects of interacted competitions were studied and compared by the total number of each population. Cladoceran species group was abundant from early autumn to late winter, while rotifer group decreased conspicuous during the period. Wastewater effluents may led to a change of zooplankton communities which were dominated by large species (cladoceran and rotifer groups) to those dominated by small species (protozoan group). It was suggested that the pressure of interacted competition of all zooplankton communities was not strengthened in this basin, because of the coincidence of zooplankton fluctuations at similar characteristics throughout the year.
#|Montuelle, B.; Volat, B.; Torio-Fernandez, M. M.; Navarro, E.  Changes in Nitrobacter serotypes biodiversity in a river: impact of wastewater treatment plant discharge.  Water Research (Oxford)  vol. 30 (5):  p.1057-1064, 1996.  The impact of a waste water treatment plant (WTP) effluent on a freshwater biofilm autochthonous bacterial microflora (Nitrobacter sp.) was studied. Physiochemical parameters showed drastic changes after waste water discharge in the river: decrease of dissolved oxygen concn, increase of N-NH4+ as well as dissolved organic nitrogen and dissolved organic carbon.  Nevertheless the standard conditions of nitrification (pH, temp., oxygen level) downstream of the discharge point were not limiting for the nitrification process.  The benthic Nitrobacter populations, involved in the nitrification process, changed qualitatively and quantitatively after the WTP discharge. Immunofluorescence labelling techniques allowed the identification of 6 different serotypes (AG, DE30, DE11, X14, LL and W) and surveys showed important variations of their relative abundance. WTP discharges represented great quantities of Nitrobacter (from 106 to 108 cells/ml) according to the serotypes which wereall present in the effluent. The definition of a qualitative serotype index showed that the Nitrobacter serotype biodiversity upstream of the WTP discharge was constant all year long: the downstream biodiversity was likely linked to the waste water input and to its, consequent environmental disruptions.
#|Moon C H; Lee Y S; Yoon T H.  Variation of trace Cu, Pb and Zn in sediment and water of an urban stream resulting from domestic effluents.  Water Research  28 (4):p985-991 1994.  The investigation of the Mushim-chun estuary system, containing a number of well-defined point sources of domestic effluents, was carried out during 7 months of the dry period (October-March). The analyses of stream water show that the concentrations of Cu, Pb and Zn in the samples from urban areas affected by domestic effluents are significantly higher than those from rural upstream. The survey of the stream bottom sediment was also carried out during March, when sufficient quantity of the suspended sediment fraction settling on the stream bottom is uniformly incorporated into the stream bottom sediment. The results of the sediment analyses show that the top sediment layer ( apprx 0-2 cm), comprising predominately of lt 63 mu-m fraction, is geochemically important for source assessments. The stream sediment geochemical anomaly is caused by the discharge of wastewater, containing large amounts of trace Cu, Pb and Zn in both the dissolved and particulate phases, from overcrowded residential areas. The analysis of topsoils from the stream banks and road dusts from the adjacent roads suggest that there are no major non-point anthropogenic sources located along the banks of the Mushim-chun estuary system.
#|Morgan, I J ; Henry, R P ; Wood, C M.  The mechanism of acute silver nitrate toxicity in freshwater rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) is inhibition of gill Na super(+) and Cl super(-) transport.  AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY vol. 38, no. 1-3, pp. 145-163, 1997.  Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) were exposed to 2 and 10 mu gl-1 silver (as AgNO3) for up to 75h in moderately hard freshwater. At 10 mu gl-1 total Ag, branchial Na+ and Cl- influxes were inhibited by over 50% immediately and by almost 100% at 8h, and showed no signs of recovery over the duration of the experiment. Na+ and Cl- effluxes were much less affected. These changes in unidirectional fluxes resulted in a large net loss of both Na+ and Cl- across the gills and a significant decrease in plasma [Na+] and [Cl-]. The effects of exposure to 2 mu gl-1 Ag on Na+ and Cl- transport were generally similar to those at 10 mu gl-1, but were of a lesser magnitude. Unidirectional Na+ fluxes recovered immediately after removal of silver, after 48h exposure to 2 mu gl-1. Michaelis-Menten kinetic analysis demonstrated that the maximal rate of Na+ influx (Jmax) was significantly reduced after 48h exposure to 2 mu gl-1 Ag, whereas the affinity of the transport sites for Na+ (1/Km) was unaffected, indicating that the inhibition of Na+ influx by silver was of a non-competitive nature. Fish exposed to 10 mu gl-1 Ag for 48h also had significantly lower activities of the branchial enzymes Na+/K+ ATPase (85% inhibition) and carbonic anhydrase (28% inhibition). The results of this study suggest that a disturbance of branchial ionoregulation, as a result of inhibition of branchial enzymes involved in ion transport, is the principal mechanism of the physiological toxicity of silver nitrate to freshwater fish.
#|Morrisey, D. J., Underwood, A. J., Howitt, L., Wu, R. S. S., Atlas, R. M., Goldberg, E. D., Sheppard, C., Chapman, P. M., Connell, D. W., McIntyre, A. D., & Rainbow, P. S. e.  (1995).  Development of sediment-quality criteria -- a proposal from experimental field-studies of the effects of copper on benthic organisms: INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON MARINE POLLUTION AND ECOTOXICOLOGY HELD IN HONG KONG, 22-26 JANUARY 1995.  MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 1995: pp. 372-377-vol. 31, no. 4-12. Very few of the numerous studies of the effects of copper on animals living in marine sediments have involved manipulative field-experiments. Such experiments provide greater realism than laboratory-based studies in terms of environmental variability or complexity, but the otherwise confounding effects of this variation can be removed by random allocation of treatments to experimental units. We describe an experiment in sandy sediments in Botany Bay, NSW, Australia, in which concentrations of copper in the sediments were manipulated using blocks of plaster impregnated with copper sulphate. Replicate copper-enhanced and control treatments were randomly allocated to experimental units. Thus, any differences among treatments in the patterns of change in their faunas can be unambiguously ascribed to the copper treatment. The use of manipulative field-experiments is discussed in the context of the development of sediment-quality criteria.
#|Morrison G.M., Wei C., & Engdal M. (1993). Variations of environmental parameters and ecological response in an urban river.  WATER SCI. TECHNOL.; 27/12 (191-194).  Water and sediment quality deterioration in an urban river was assessed during and after stormwater runoff and sewer overflow. Stormwater runoff had a noticeable effect on continuous measurements of water quality in the urban river; oxygen sag and increased conductivity was a typical response. Sediment toxicity was found at sites directly exposed to urban runoff, while concentrations of copper and lead exceeded sediment quality criteria. The enzyme activity of the sediment-dwelling bacteria was found to be more sensitive with inhibition downstream and upstream of urban discharge.
#|Moser-T.J.; Wigington-P.J.; Schuft-M.J.; Kaufmann-P.R.; Herlihy-A.T. Effect of Riparian Areas on the Ecological Condition of Small, Perennial Streams in Agricultural Landscapes of the Willamette Valley. Research Plan, June 1997. PB97196406XSP.  Performer: National Health and Environmental Effects Research Lab., Corvallis, OR. Western Ecology Div., Dynamac Corp., Corvallis, OR., Oregon State Univ., Corvallis. Jun 97. 77p. This product may be ordered from NTIS by phone at (703)487-4650; by fax at (703)321-8547; and by email at 'orders ntis.fedworld.gov'. Little research has been directed toward determining the status and ecological role of riparian areas in agricultural landscapes of the Willamette Valley, Oregon. A research project has been designed to contribute to the development and evaluation of alternative future scenarios and to improve the basic understanding of the role of riparian areas on the ecological condition of small, perennial streams in agricultural landscapes of the Willamette Valley. The objectives of the research are: (1) to quantify relationships between riparian attributes at varying spatial scales and stream ecological condition, and (2) to estimate the influence of selected riparian area-agricultural configurations on the indicators of stream ecological condition. To address these objectives, remotely-sensed imagery (aerial photography and thematic mapper satellite imagery) will be used to quantify land cover at multiple spatial scales (i.e., stream reach, stream network, watershed), from which riparian vegetation function, land use stressor, and stream network structure indicators (i.e., potential explanatory variables) are derived for 41 study watersheds.
#|Mugan, T J.  Quantification of total mercury discharges from publicly owned treatment works to Wisconsin surface waters.  WATER ENVIRONMENT RESEARCH vol. 68, no. 2, pp. 229-234, 1996.  Testing of mercury levels in both raw and treated wastewater at publicly owned treatment works in the past has frequently detected concentrations just above the common lower limit of detection of 0.2 mu g/L. In recent years those results have been questioned. This paper assembles and summarizes results of recent tests, conducted using more sensitive laboratory methods. The data indicate that although influent levels compare reasonably well with past data, effluent levels are much lower than previously thought. Further, this new information shows that a large percentage of the incoming mercury becomes associated with the wastewater solids during the treatment process. Much research effort has been expended on the behavior of mercury in natural waters, and this knowledge can be applied to the wastewater field. However, the mechanisms for removal of mercury from the waste stream are not completely understood. Additional study is needed to determine the forms mercury takes during the treatment process and which factors may affect its removal.
#|Mulliss, R M ; Revitt, D M ; Shutes, R B E.  The determination of the toxic influences to Gammarus pulex (Amphipoda) caged in urban receiving waters.  ASKING THE RIGHT QUESTIONS: ECOTOXICOLOGY AND STATISTICS.  Crane, M ; Cahpman, P F (eds) ECOTOXICOLOGY vol. 5, no. 3 pp. 209-215, 1996.  A statistical procedure comprising principal component analysis and multiple regression has been applied to the in situ mortality response data for Gammarus pulex caged downstream of a combined sewer overflow (CSO) and a surface water outfall (SWO). The mortality and heavy metal bioaccumulation responses of the species as well as seventeen different chemical and hydrological characteristics of the receiving watercourse were monitored continuously for 36 days. Flow rate, BOD sub(5), suspended solids, total ammonia, total aqueous copper and lead concentrations and dissolved aqueous concentrations of zinc and copper influenced the mortality response of Gammarus pulex. The relationships between the mortality response and the selected independent variables are expressed in the form of stable quantitative equations by regressing the dependent variable (i.e. mortality) against the principal components of the independent parameters. This statistical approach represents an important tool for interpreting large intercorrelated sets of environmental data obtained in situ.
#|Munawar,-M.; Munawar,-I.F.; McCarthy,-L.; Page,-W.; Gilron,-G. Assessing the impact of sewage effluent on the ecosystem health of the Toronto Waterfront (Ashbridges Bay), Lake Ontario. J.-AQUAT.-ECOSYST.-HEALTH 1993  vol. 2, no. 4, pp. 287-315.  The ecosystem health of the Toronto Waterfront (Ashbridges Bay), Lake Ontario which receives treated sewage effluent was investigated during 1987 and 1988 by means of a functional and structural battery of tests. The functional tests included in situ size-fractionated primary productivity, Algal Fractionation Bioassays (AFBs), unfiltered and filtered bioassays, and sediment assays with Daphnia magna and Hyalella azteca. The structural evaluation involved the biomonitoring of the components of the 'microbial loop', such as bacteria, autotrophic picoplankton, heterotrophic nanoflagellates, and protozoa. The experimental results reveal a diversity of physiological responses to the complex nutrient and contaminant regimes by the indigenous phytoplankton. There was no evidence of the impact of chlorination on the primary productivity of the Bay. The overall productivity was higher during the post-chlorination period than the pre-chlorination phase. The high rates of microplankton + netplankton productivity near the outfall have been attributed to the bioavailability of nutrients which, quite possibly, exert ameliorating effects on metal toxicity. In contrast, the low ultraplankton rates have been interpreted to be due to their well-known sensitivity to contaminants. The Effluent Receiving Water Bioassays (ERWB) with filtered and unfiltered experiments provided interesting insight and appear to be a potentially useful assessment tool. Generally, the unfiltered water compared to the filtered was toxic to the offshore test phytoplankton. This demonstrates a unique ecological adaptation to the prevailing in situ conditions by the Bay community which might be important from the restoration point of view. However, the offshore population was found to be sensitive to the particulate-bound toxicity as indicated by the unfiltered bioassays. Consequently, it is essential to probe the complexity of nutrient-contaminant interactions which ultimately appear to determine the toxicity and the resulting health of the biota. Furthermore, our experiments have shown that the particulate-matter is an important carrier of both nutrients and contaminants in Ashbridges Bay. The sediment bioassays for Station 419 indicated that sediments were toxic during both the pre- and post-chlorination phases. Both solid and liquid phase testing indicated toxicity of sediment to the acute Daphnia test. The Hyalella chronic assay showed good survival during the 4-wk period of the experiment, in contrast to the toxicity observed for phytoplankton and Daphnia. This may be due to large mounts of organic matter available in the Bay. The invertebrate bioassays confirmed the lack of impact of chlorination. Finally, the 'microbial loop' seems to be a sensitive, rapid, and an early warning bioindicator of anthropogenic stress. The multi-trophic battery of structural and functional strategy adopted in our laboratory appear to be holistic and effective. The strategy has a considerable potential for developing eco-technology for a badly needed assessment and restoration of ecosystem health of the Great Lakes as well as other perturbed environments in the world.
#|Murugesan, A G ; Haniffa, M A.  Influence of textile mill effluent on food utilization of the freshwater fish Macropodus cupanus (Cuvier).  ENVIRONMENT AND ECOLOGY vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 195-198, 1994. Exposure to textile-mill effluent altered the normal food utilization of the fish, Macropodus cupanus. Rate of ingestion and absorption of food was elevated at all concentrations. Maximum conversion rate of 9.57 mg/g per day was found in the fish exposed to 15% effluent, compared to 6.37 mg/g per day in the control. Conversion efficiency was increased (14.32 to 20.62%) at high concentrations.  Total carbohydrate, protein and lipid content showed a dose-dependent increase.
#|Mushrifah, I., Ismail, A., Ahmad, A., & Badri, M. A.  (1994). Water quality of some rivers and levels of selected heavy metals in freshwater fishes of Taman Negara, Peninsular Malaysia.  The Malayan Nature Journal v. 47(pt. 4) p. 397-408. The physical and chemical water quality of four rivers in Taman Negara namely Sg. Terenggan, Sg. Keniyam, Sg. Sat and Sg. Tahan are within limits of the recommended Malaysian water criteria for domestic supply. Ten fish species were caught and analysed for heavy metals. Lead, zinc, copper, manganase, iron and cadmium content were determined in the gills, stomach, muscle tissues, bones and tails using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometric methods. Levels of lead, zinc, copper and iron were high in the tail region. Heavy metal content in fish muscle tissues varied between fish species. The heavy metal contents (g/g wet weight) were generally within these ranges: Pb (0.03-0.70), Zn (6.2-18.9), Cu (0.4-0.5), Mn (0.2-2.3), Fe (0.9-13.1), Cd (0.1-0.2).
#|Myers,-D.M.  Application of a geographic information system for study-unit design of a national water quality assessment project in the Lake Erie-Lake St. Clair basin. Conference of the International Association for Great Lakes Research, East Lansing, MI 28 May-1 Jun 1995.  PROCEEDINGS OF THE 38TH CONFERENCE OF THE INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF GREAT LAKES RESEARCH. 2200 BONISTEEL BOULEVARD, ANN ARBOR, MI.  INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR GREAT LAKES RESEARCH. 1995 p. 50. In 1991, the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) began to implement a National Water Quality Assessment (NAWQA) program. The long-term goals are to describe the status and trends in the quality of a large, representative part of the nation's surface water and ground water and to provide a scientific understanding of the primary natural and human factors affecting the quality of these resources. The Lake Erie-Lake St. Clair Basin (LERI) study unit is one of 60 NAWQA study units nationwide. A Geographic Information System (GIS) data base is being developed that includes information on natural and human factors that affect water quality. The environmental framework developed in the GIS provides a method for stratifying the study unit into relatively homogenous units (RHU) that represent these natural and human factors. Assessment activities are focused in RHUs considered most representative of the study unit. Two physiographic provinces, five ecoregions, six hydrogeologic settings, and eight principal river basins form the major natural features. The greatest population density in the Great Lakes Basin, intensive land use, and a large number of contaminant sources represent the major human factors. A preliminary study-unit design identifying 20 to 30 RHUS and representative sampling locations will be described.
#|Naidu, J.R.; Royce, B.A.  Brookhaven National Laboratory site environmental report for calendar year 1993.  Brookhaven National Lab., Upton, NY.  Department of Energy, Washington, DC.  Contract Number: BNL-52432, Contract AC02-76CH00016.  NTIS/DE95007527, 258p.  PROGRESS REPT. 25/7/8.  TD3:  This report documents the results of the Environmental Monitoring Program at BNL and presents summary information about environmental compliance for 1993. To evaluate the effect of BNL operations on the local environment, measurements of direct radiation, and a variety of radionuclides and chemical compounds in ambient air, soil, sewage effluent, surface water, ground water and vegetation were made at the BNL site and at sites adjacent to the Laboratory.  Brookhaven National Laboratory's compliance with all applicable guides, standards, and limits for radiological and nonradiological emissions to the environment were evaluated. Among the permitted facilities, two instances, of pH exceedances were observed at recharge basins, possible related to rain-water run-off to these recharge basins. Also, the discharge from the Sewage Treatment Plant (STP) to the Peconic River exceeded on five occasions, three for residual chlorine and one each for iron and ammonia nitrogen.  The chlorine exceedances were related to a malfunctioning hypochlorite dosing pump and ceased when the pump was repaired. While the iron and ammonia-nitrogen could be the result of disturbances to the sand filter beds during maintenance. The environmental monitoring data has identified site-specific contamination of ground water and soil. These areas are subject to Remedial Investigation/Feasibility Studies (RI/FS) under the Inter Agency Agreement (IAG).  Except for the above, the environmental monitoring data has continued to demonstrate that compliance was achieved with applicable environmental laws and regulations governing emission and discharge of materials to the environment, and that the environmental impacts at BNL are minimal and pose no threat to the public or to the environment. This report meets the requirements of DOE Orders 5484. 1, Environmental Protection, Safety, and Health Protection Information reporting requirements and 5400.1, General Environmental Protection Programs.
#|Naimo T JA.  Rreview of the effects of heavy metals on freshwater mussels. Ecotoxicology, 4 (6). 1995.  341-362. The widespread recent decline in the species diversity and population density of freshwater mussels in North America may be partly related to chronic, low-level exposure to toxic metals. As benthic filter-feeding organisms, freshwater mussels are exposed to metals that are dissolved in water, associated with suspended particles and deposited in bottom sediments. Thus, freshwater mussels can bioaccumulate certain metals to concentrations that greatly exceed those dissolved in water. In adult mussels, the most common site of metal uptake is the gill, followed by the mantle and the kidney. The toxic effects of metals on freshwater mussels have been examined in a few acute toxicity tests, but the sublethal effects of long-term exposure to low environmental concentrations are little understood. Sublethal exposure to metals can alter growth, filtration efficiency, enzyme activity and behaviour. Sublethal effects are frequently observed at concentrations that are only half the lethal concentrations. However, few toxicity tests have used environmentally realistic exposure concentrations. Total concentrations of Cd, Cu, Hg and Zn in many oxic surface waters are in the ng l-1 range, yet many toxicity studies have exposed mussels to concentrations in the mu-gl-1 or even the mg l-1 range. An understanding of the processes by which metals affect freshwater mussels would provide insights on the ecotoxicological significance of metal contamination to natural mussel populations and aid in the development of water-quality criteria that adequately protect mussels.
#|Nakagawa Hisaki; Sato Tsutomu; Kubo Hirokatsu. Evaluation of chronic toxicity of water lead for carp Cyprinus carpio using its blood 5-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase. Fisheries Science (Tokyo)  61 (6):p956-959 1995.  Carp Cyprinus carpio were exposed for 20 days to test waters consisting of combinations of four lead concentrations (0, 10, 100, and1,000 ppb) and four levels of water hardness (50, 150, 500, and 1000 ppm as CaCO-3), and 5-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase (ALA-D) activities and lead concentrations in the fish blood were measured. ALA-D activities decreased with increasing blood lead concentrations, and the activities were negatively correlated to the log of the blood lead concentrations (r = -0.93). Blood lead concentrations increased with increasing water lead concentrations. However, lead accumulation in the blood lowered with increasing water hardness. ALA-D activities in the lead-contaminated fish blood decreased to about 40% of that of the control fish when carp were exposed for 20 days to test water with a water hardness of 50 ppm CaCO-3 and a water lead concentration of 10 ppb (Environmental Water Quality Standards relating to Human Health in Japan). Judging from the inhibitory degree of carp blood ALA-D, the standard value is the concentration that may cause chronic toxicity to carp.
#|NAKAMURA Y; TOKUNAGA T.  Antimony in the aquatic environment in north Kyushu district of Japan.  WATER SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY; 34 (7-8). 1996.  In Japan, the water quality standards for items requiring surveillance for drinking water in 1992 and environmental water in 1993 stipulate that the concentration of antimony is 2 mug/l or less.  Recently cases of water contamination by antimony have been reported throughout Japan.  We have measured antimony concentrations in the aquatic environment in north Kyushu district of Japan by atomic absorption spectrometry with hydride generationand found them to be in the range 0.0 to 0.8 mug/l all of which were less than the water quality standards at the present time. However, wastewater containing high concentration of antimony may contaminate aquatic environment in future. Studies have since been carried out to remove antimony from polluted wastewater. We tried to use ferric chloride as coagulant and dechlorination tap water containing approximately 10 mug/l antimony as the sample solution. Of the sample solution, pH of which was 7-8 and included the ferric chloride, pH was controlled by adding either hydrochloric acid or sodium hydroxide. The efficiency of removal of antimony reached a maximum at pH 4.0-5.5. When ferric chloride concentration was more than 30 mg/l at pH 4.5, 80-90% antimony was removed. However, when the original antimony concentration was 250 mug/l, up to 200 mg/l ferric chloride had to be added. Therefore, from water originally polluted by antimony at concentrations of 2-250 mug/l, almost complete removal of antimony is expected by adding ferric chloride to become 200 mg/l and adjusting the pH to 4.5.
#|National Health and Environmental Effects Research Lab.  Ecotox Database (AQUIRE, PHYTOTOX, and TERRETOX) (Non-VMS Data) (on Magnetic Tape). (Reannoucement with New Abstract). Software. 1996.  National Health and Environmental Effects Research Lab., Duluth, MN. This datafile is an integration of three existing EPA datafiles, AQUIRE, Phytotox, and Terretox. It includes toxicity data, derived predominantly from the peer-reviewed literature, for aquatic organisms, terrestrial plants and wildlife species, respectively. Each Ecotox test record contains information about the chemical, organism, exposure condition and observed effect under which the toxicity test was conducted. AQUIRE (Acquatic Toxicity Information Retrieval) developed in 1981 through efforts at the U.S.Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Mid-Continent Ecology Division in Duluth, MN (MED-Duluth), is a comprehensive summary of available aquatic toxicity data. Currently, AQUIRE includes more than 140,000 toxic effect records for 5,900 chemicals and 2,900 freshwater and marine organisms abstracted from more than 10,000 publications. AQUIRE includes lethal, sublethal, and residue effects data for a single-chemical exposures conducted in a field or laboratory setting through the first quarter of publication year 1996. AQUIRE does not include in vitro exposures, mixture and effluent exposures, or sediment exposures that do not report water concentrations. Phytotox, developed through efforts at the U.S. EPA, NHEERL, Western Ecology Division, (WED) in Corvalis, OR, is a database of toxic effects records for terrestrial vascular wild plant species (native or introduced) or agricultural species. Phytotox includes lethal and sublethal effect data through publication year 1991, but does not include results from residue studies. Currently, the database contains more than 48,000 effect records for 900 species and 1,500 chemicals, extracted from 2,600 publications. Terretox (Terrestrial Toxicity Database) was also developed through efforts at the WED, and includes toxicity data for wildlife species. Lethal, sublethal and residues effects data through publication year 1992 are included in Terretox. Terretox currently includes more than 38,000 data records for 240 species and 1,056 chemicals, abstracted from 529 publications. Ecotox also includes the Office of Pesticide Programs (OPP) Ecological Effects Database, which contains toxic effects data categorized as acceptable for fulfillment of pesticide registration and re-registration guideline requirements as explained under FIFRA Subdivision E, Parts 158.145 and 158.150.
#|Neary,-D.-G.; Bush,-P.-B.; Michael,-J.-L.  Fate, Dissipation and Environmental Effects of Pesticides in Southern Forests: A Review of a Decade of Research Progress. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry ETOCDK, Vol. 12, No. 3, p 411-428, March 1993.  Ten years of watershed-scale research has been conducted on the fate of forestry-use pesticides in forested catchments under mainly operational conditions throughout the southern U.S. Studies have evaluated chemicals such as hexazinone, picloram, sulfometuron methyl, met-sulfuron methyl, azinphosmethyl, triclopyr, carbofuran, lindane, malathion, fenvalerate, copper-chromium-arsenic, and pentachlorophenol. Model verifications of pesticide fate and dissipation and risk analyses have been conducted using simulation models such as GLEAMS, CREAMS, and PRZM. Field study data indicate that movement is controlled by the main hydrologic pathways (e.g., surface runoff, infiltration, interflow, and leaching below the root zone). Peak residue concentrations tend to be low (<500 microgm/L), except where direct applications are made to perennial streams or to ephemeral channels, and where buffer strips are not used and do not persist for extended periods of time. Indirect effects noted from the use of pesticides in forested watersheds include temporarily increased nitrate nitrogen losses, reduced sediment yie lds, temporal changes in terrestrial invertebrate abundance, reduced plant diversity, and changes in particulate organic matter transport in streams. Analyses conducted in regional environmental impact statements indicate that the low concentrations and short persistence of forestry pesticides in surface water and groundwater do not post a significant risk to water quality, aquatic biota, or human health.
#|Nebeker A V; Griffis W L; Schuytema G S.  Toxicity and estimated water quality criteria values in mallard ducklings exposed to pentachlorophenol. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology  26 (1):p 33-36 1994.  Tests were conducted to determine the effects of pentachlorophenol (PCP) in feed on growth and bioaccumulation in mallard ducklings (Anas platyrhynchos). Significant effects of PCP on growth (LOAEL) were observed after 11 days at 961 mu-g/g PCP. The NOAEL value (no significant growth effects) was 423 mu-g/g PCP. Concentrations of PCP in tissues at the NOAEL were 20.7 (liver), 12.2 (lipid), 3.3 (muscle), and 2.6 (brain) mu-g/g (wet wt); no bioaccumulation was observed. Using a toxicity threshold model, it was estimated that about 1.1 mg/L of waterborne PCP was a threshold for adverse effects for mallard ducks.
#|NELSON RL, PLATTS WS, LARSEN DP, JENSEN SE.  TROUT DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT IN RELATION TO GEOLOGY AND GEOMORPHOLOGY IN THE NORTH FORK HUMBOLDT RIVER DRAINAGE, NORTHEASTERN NEVADA.  TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN FISHERIES SOCIETY 121: (4) 405-426 JUL 1992.  We studied the existing distribution of native Lahontan cutthroat trout Oncorhynchus clarki henshawi and exotic brook trout Salvelinus fontinalis with respect to geologic and geomorphic land-classes in the upper North Fork Humboldt River drainage, Nevada. We evaluated habitat conditions in study sites to determine which measured components of habitat structure provided the best discriminators among study stream reaches in the different land-classes and among trout-supporting and unpopulated study reaches. At a finer level of resolution, we used the habitat attributes with the most discriminatory power to plot the distributions of study areas by land-class and by presence or absence of trout along coordinate axes reflecting environmental gradients defined by these attributes. Elevation, substrate embeddedness, and streamflow were the variables with the most discriminatory power among land-classes defined by parent geologic material (geologic district), but gravel abundance in the substrate was more useful than streamflow in further discriminating among land-classes at the lower-level classification defined by geomorphic character (landtype association). Plots of study areas along environmental gradients defined by these variables visibly separated study areas by land-class. Trout distributions at specific sites were clearly related to geologic district and, to a lesser extent, to landtype association. Trout were almost exclusively restricted to sites in the sedimentary mountains defining the western boundary of the drainage, and occurred elsewhere only in study areas that were upstream from the fine-textured valley floor. Of the variables measured, embeddedness appeared to be the most likely cause of the segregation of trout by geologic district. Although unmeasured variables (e.g., temperature, winter conditions, and turbidity) cannot be eliminated as potential limiting factors, peripheral evidence suggests that they alone probably are not determinants of trout distribution in the region. Trout were common in the sedimentary geologic district, but did not occur in all study sites. Important discriminating attributes in this region were stream width, abundance of large substrate (rubble and boulder), and streamflow; trout were principally associated with sites characterized by wider, well-watered stream reaches containing high percentages of large stream-bottom particles. Study sites meeting these criteria were concentrated in high mountain areas influenced by Pleistocene glaciation, but were also present in the fluvial canyons. All sites containing brook trout were in drainages that had been glaciated. These sites would normally be considered "better" trout habitat; native cutthroat trout occupied the more degraded sites.
#|NERAC Inc. 1993.  Water quality standards summaries: State and federal criteria.  NERAC Inc., Tolland, CT.  The bibliography contains citations concerning compilations of water quality standards for the United States and the U.S. territories. Individual chemicals such as mercury, cyanide, arsenic, zinc, organic compounds, pesticides, and iron, as well as bacteria are discussed. Standards for pH, temperature, dissolved solids, dissolved oxygen, and material degradation are included. State water quality standards are included.
#|NERAC, I. T. C. 1998.  Water Quality Standards Summaries: State and Federal Criteria.  Bibliography.  NERAC, Inc., Tolland, CT.  The bibliography contains citations concerning compilations of water quality standards for the United States and the U.S. territories. Individual chemicals such as mercury, cyanide, arsenic, zinc, organic compounds, pesticides, and iron, as well as bacteria are discussed. Standards for pH, temperature, dissolved solids, dissolved oxygen, and material degradation are included. State water quality standards are included.
#|NERAC, Inc. Pulping Effluents: Biological Treatment. (Latest Citations from the Paper and Board, Printing, and Packaging Industries Research Associations Database). Published Search. NERAC, Inc., Tolland, CT.  National Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA. RD:  Mar 96. The bibliography contains citations concerning effluent and wastewater biological treatment and disposal in the pulping industry. Effluent toxicity; treatment plant management, treatment systems, and equipment design; combined mechanical and biological treatment processes; biological degradation treatment in chemical pulp mills; and the handling and disposal of solid wastes are among the topics discussed. Also examined are performance evaluations of biological treatment processes in domestic and foreign plants in full scale operation and pilot programs.
#|NERAC, Inc., Tolland, CT.  Selenium Pollution: Occurrence and Environmental Fate. : National Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA.  May 97.  The bibliography contains citations concerning sources and abatement of pollution caused by selenium and selenium compounds. The citations examine the effects of selenium on the reproductive success of birds and fish, uptake of selenium in plants, and bioaccumulation in the food chain. Other topics include selenium chemistry and persistence in soil, water, and the atmosphere; the relative toxicities of selenium and selenium compounds; and decontamination of polluted environments.  Special attention is given to agricultural effluent as a source of selenium pollution and to the development of long-term monitoring programs to determine the rate at which pollution declines.
#|NESERKE G; TAYLOR H.  Determination of site-specific effluent detection limits.  Water environment research, 1996, 68 (1) 115-119.  A solution is proposed for the practical problems of regulatory compliance with toxic metals standards that are lower than the methoddetection limit.  Samples of wastewater treatment plant effluent were analyzed for five different metals by four different laboratories. A two-way analysis of variance was used to estimate the standard deviation that was multiplied by the appropriate Student's t test statistic. The result is the interlaboratory method detection limit (IMDL). The IMDL was then added to the chronic permit limit to find the regulatory compliance limit.  Although the values found for silver and mercury were slightly higher than the previously used method detection limit, they did not equal the estimate of practical quantitation limit as previously described in the literature.
#|Newall, Peter. Fish distributions in the St. Croix river basin : the importance of ecoregions versus local ecological conditions / by Peter Newall. 1996.  (Ph. D.)--University of Wisconsin--Madison.
#|Newell,-A.; Bernert,-J. Scientific and management issues in Oregon's lake ecoregions. Oregon Dep. Environ. Quality, 811 SW 6th Ave., Portland, OR.  NORTHWEST-SCI. 1996  vol. 70, no. 2, pp. 1-12.  In this overview paper we describe the ecoregions of Oregon, briefly characterize the lakes in each region, and summarize the lake management problems of coastal and Cascade lakes, two ecoregions represented in this issue. Shallow coastal lakes are often naturally mesotrophic or eutrophic, and thus support profuse populations of aquatic plants. Four coastal lakes reported on here, Devils, Woahink, Mercer, and Munsel Lake, represent a range of depth and trophic levels; all currently experience high development pressure. In contrast Cascade lakes are more often located in protected areas of federal land and in wilderness areas, and thus experience more pressure from recreational than from residential use. In this overview, we present three studies of contrasting lakes in the Cascade ecoregion: (1) a protected lake of renown, Crater Lake in Crater Lake National Park, (2) one of the world's most dilute lakes, Lake Notasha, located in a wilderness area, and (3) a more impacted power-generating reservoir, Lemolo Lake. Finally, we applied a cluster analysis on lake chemistry variables and compared the geographic distribution of clusters to ecoregion boundaries. In general, we found a geographic distribution to the identified clusters that paralleled ecoregion boundaries. The ecoregions provide useful background for widescale management decisions.
#|Newman, M.C. and C.H., Jagoe. 1994.  Ligands and the bioavailability of metals in aquatic environments. In J.L. Hamelink, P.F. Landrum, H.L. Bergman and W.H. Benson, eds., Bioavailability: physical, chemical, and biological interactions.  SETAC Special Publications Series, Lewis, Boca Raton, FL., pp. 39-62.
#|Nickle, J C ; Munkittrick, K R ; Portt, C B ; Van der Kraak, G.  Effects of primary-treated pulp mill effluents on reproductive fitness in white sucker inhabiting a riverine system.  PROCEEDINGS OF THE 38TH CONFERENCE OF THE INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF GREAT LAKES RESEARCH. p. 30, 1995, May 28-Jun 1.  INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR GREAT LAKES RESEARCH: ANN ARBOR, MI.  The impact of exposure to two different types of pulp mill effluents on hepatic mixed function oxygenase (MFO) activity and reproductive fitness of white sucker (Catostomus commersoni) inhabiting a riverine system in Northeastern Ontario was examined. Fish were collected in September 1993, May 1994, and September 1994 downstream of the bleached kraft pulp mill at Smooth Rock Falls and the recycled newsprint/TMP mill at Kapuskasing while both mills were discharging primary-treated effluent. Hepatic MFO activity (EROD) was markedly elevated in males downstream of both mills but elevated only in females downstream of Smooth Rock Falls. While gonadal weights were lower in effluent exposed fish collected during gonadal recrudescence in the autumn, there were no differences in fish collected in the spring during the prespawning period. Fecundity was not affected by effluent exposure. Levels of the predominant sex steroids in effluent exposed fish, 11-ketotestosterone in males and 17 beta -estradiol in females, were significantly lower than reference fish during the period of gonadal growth and at prespawning. Plasma and pituitary GtH-II levels were either higher in effluent exposed fish or comparable to reference fish. In conclusion, this study indicates that similar reproductive endocrine effects were seen in white sucker exposed to two different pulp mill effluents and the effects on sex steroids were not related to altered pituitary function.
#|Niimi, A. J., & Haya, K. (1996). Aquatic Toxicity Workshop: Proceedings 1995: Canadian technical report of fisheries and aquatic sciences no. no. 2093. Annual publication.  Aquatic Toxicity Workshop (22d: 1995: St. Andrews, N.B.), St Andrews, (New Brunswick). Canada. Dept. of Fisheries & Oceans. Biological Station (St. Andrews, N.B.). 173p. These annual workshops for personnel from industry, governments & universities cover topics from basic aquatic toxicology to applications in environmental monitoring, setting of regulations & guidelines, and the development of sediment & water quality criteria. Topics include: Toxicology & chemistry in watershed management; bioassay, ecological risk assessment; toxicity identification/toxicity reduction; fate & effects of PAHs in the aquatic environment; PCBs in waterways, transport & toxicity; mercury in aquatic ecosystems; sediment toxicity; biomarkers of pollution; statistics for estimating potency from non-quantal data; advances in micro-scale aquatic toxicology; aquatic toxicology of water birds; and aquatic pathology & its role in forensic science. Papers, abstracts, and poster presentations are described.
#|Nimmo DR. Willox MJ. Lafrancois TD. Chapman PL. Brinkman SF. Greene JC .  EFFECTS OF METAL MINING AND MILLING ON BOUNDARY WATERS OF YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK, USA . Environmental Management. 22(6):913-926, 1998 Nov-Dec.  Aquatic resources in Soda Butte Creek within Yellowstone National Park, USA. continue to be threatened by heavy metals from historical mining and milling activities that occurred upstream of the park's boundary. This includes the residue of gold, silver, and copper ore mining and processing in the early 1900s near Cooke City, Montana, just downstream of the creek's headwaters. Toxicity tests, using surrogate test species, and analyses of metals in water, sediments. and macroinvertebrate tissue were conducted from 1993 to 1995.  Chronic toxicity to test species was greater in the spring than the fall and metal concentrations were elevated in the spring with copper exceeding water quality criteria in 1995. Tests with amphipods using pore water and whole sediment from the creek and copper concentrations in the tissue of macroinvertebrates and fish also suggest that copper is the metal of concern in the watershed. In order to understand current conditions in Soda Butte Creek, heavy metals, especially copper, must be considered important factors in the aquatic and riparian ecosystems within and along the creek extending into Yellowstone National Park.
#|Nizharadze, T N ; Tomilin, A M.  Protein indication method in monitoring of pulp mill effluent pollution in Lake Ladoga.  PROCEEDINGS OF THE FIRST INTERNATIONAL LAKE LADOGA SYMPOSIUM: ECOLOGICAL PROBLEMS OF LAKE LADOGA HELD IN ST. PETERSBURG, RUSSIA, 22-26 NOVEMBER 1993.  Simola, H ; Viljanen, M ; Slepukhina, T ; Murthy, R  (eds ).  HYDROBIOLOGIA vol. 322, no. 1-3 pp. 167-171, 1996.  The paper presents application of the protein indication method to studies of pollution of Lake Ladoga in the area affected by effluent discharge of the Pitkaeranta pulp mill. Analysis of proteins gives new insight into the causes of water quality deterioration in stagnant zones near the mill discharge outlet at Pusunsaari Island. Anomalies in protein concentration coincide spatially with hydrochemical anomalies. Protein anomalies indicate the process of bacterial decomposition of wood fibre accumulated in the stagnant waters, which in turn is reflected in the chemical water quality parameters in the polluted zone.
#|Noble, P.A. ; Ashton, E.J. ; Davidson, C.A. ; Dziuba, M. ; Webster, K.D. ; Albritton, W.L.  Development of a Biosensor for Routine Environmental Microbiology.  Proceedings Water Quality Technology Conference; Part II Toronto, Ontario, Canada, November 15-19, 1992, p 1267-1280, 1993.  AWWA.  Although conductance signals have been used to quantitate the bacterial load of urine, food and sewage effluent, few studies have used capacitance signals because this signal was considered insensitive and subject to random variations.  This study investigated the relationship between capacitance and bacterial growth because the capacitance signal has recently been shown to be better than the conductance signal for estimating the heterotrophic plate count of surface water samples. Our results showed that the increase of the capacitance signal was highly dependent on the growth medium and bacterial species examined. Capacitance and conductance signals obtained during the growth of Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus and Alcaligenes faecalis revealed that onset and rate of increase for the capacitance signal was much greater than that of the conductance signal. Extreme differences were observed between capacitance and conductance signals when A. faecalis was grown in plate count broth. These data showed that the capacitance signal accelerated from baseline values 27 h before that of the conductance signal. Comparison of the growth profiles of E. coli inoculated in media containing varying concentrations of NaCl showed that conductance was more affected by NaCl than capacitance.There was not significant difference in the capacitance and conductancevalues when 10 1to 10 8 live cells per milliliter were placed in PCB medium. This finding suggests that biomass itself was not responsible for the changeof capacitance and conductance values during bacterial growth.
#|Nohava,-M.; Vogel,-W.R.; Gaugitsch,-H. Evaluation of the luminescent bacteria bioassay for the estimation of the toxicological potential of effluent water samples comparison with data from chemical analyses. ENVIRON.-INT. 1995  vol. 21, no. 1, pp. 33-37.  Investigations of toxic effects of water samples from industrial plants and landfill effluents on bioluminescent bacteria were carried out. The results of a standardised bioassay (LUMIStox) were compared to chemical analytic data (heavy metal concentrations, COD, and BOD). A reduction of bioluminescent activity was observed in most of the samples. The degree of reduction showed good correlation with the concentrations of anorganic and organic pollutant indicators. The applicability of the luminescent bacteria bioassay for the evaluation of the ecotoxicological potential of these kinds of polluted effluents was demonstrated.
#|Nolan, A L ; Lawrance, G A ; Maeder, M.  Phosphorus speciation in the Williams River, New South Wales: Eutrophication and a chemometric analysis of relationships with other water quality parameters.  MARINE AND FRESHWATER RESEARCH vol. 46, no. 7, pp. 1055-1064, 1995.  Phosphorus concentrations as both total phosphorus and partitioned (dissolved, 'bioavailable' and 'available-reactive'phosphorus have been determined in a quality-controlled study of the Williams River in the Hunter Valley, Australia, at Boags Hill during a five-month period.  Complementary analyses of each sample for a range of standard water quality parameters were also obtained. Strong interrelationships between total phosphorus and partitioned phosphorus suggest that total phosphorus alone may be as adequate an indicator of potential algal growth as bioavailable phosphorus in this river system, an outcome supported by limited algal bioassay results. Principal component or factor analysis of the complete data set allowed qualitative insight into the relationship between the different concentrations (relevant cations and anions) and other measurements (colour (apparent), turbidity, etc.). Compounds from similar sources are clustered in the principal component plots. The samples taken over a specific time period have been analysed in a similar way, with clustering according to rainfall patterns being clearly indicated.
#|Norberg-King-T.J.; Schmidt-S.  Comparison of Effluent Toxicity Results Using 'Ceriodaphnia dubia' Cultured on Several Diets. Environmental Research Lab.-Duluth, MN. 3 Feb 93. 13p.  Jnl. of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, v12 p1945-1955 1993. Presented at the Annual Meeting of the Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, Seattle, WA., November 3-7, 1991. Several diets have been proposed for Ceriodaphnia dubia, but no single diet has been universally accepted as optimal for toxicity testing. Although several diets for Ceriodaphnia dubia culturing and testing are commonly used, little or no data exist on whether toxicity varies with the diet. The study evaluated several combinations of yeast-Cerophyl-trout chow (YCT), Selenastrum capricornutum, and Selenastrum capricornutum-Cerophyl foods for routine culture performance and the sensitivity of the offspring in subsequent acute toxicity tests with effluents. The young produced from each of the seven diets were tested in 48-h acute tests with three different effluents across the generations. The results indicate that several diets are satisfactory for culturing Ceriodaphnia dubia and that the results of the toxicity tests are comparable.
#|Nordone, AJ; Matherly R; Bonnivier B; Doane R; Caravello H; Paakonen S; Winchester W; Parent RA.  Effect of Magnacide(R) H herbicide residuals on water quality within wildlife refuges of the Klamath Basin, CA.  Bull Environ Contam Toxicol; VOL 56, ISS 6, 1996, P964-70.
#|Northern River Basins Study (Canada).  Regulatory requirements for nutrient effluent discharges (Northern River Basins Study project report no. no. 39).  Report No.: SSC-R71-49/3-39E.  c1994.  125p.  This report outlines regulatory requirements for nutrient effluent discharges from a variety of jurisdictions in order to identify appropriate options for the regulation of such discharges in northern Canadian river basins. The review focuses on the Peace, Athabasca, and Slave Rivers and on regulatory information pertaining to pulp and paper mill effluents. It includes both the instream water quality objectives for the nutrients nitrogen and phosphorus as well as the limits for phosphorus and nitrogen (as a nutrient) specified in effluent permits and regulations. The appendix includes the text of the effluent standards and limitations used by the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources.
#|Novotny, V ; Witte, J W.  Ascertaining aquatic ecological risks of urban stormwater discharges. WATER RESEARCH vol. 31, no. 10, pp. 2573-2585, 1997. Stormwater discharges are intermittent inputs into receiving waters. In overall, the wet-weather flow periods in the receiving waters resulting from stormwater flows may represent only a fraction of the annual flow. In most humid regions the probability of wet weather overflow from urban storm sewers is between 4 and 8% and is less for combined sewer overflows. A methodology which enables one, using probabilistic principles, to calculate risk of wet-weather discharges to aquatic ecology (aquatic life) is presented. Risk is a joint probability that a genus will be acutely affected by the concentration.  It is a dimensionless, additive number, i.e. risks by several pollutants can be added together to approximate the synergic effects. It can be used for ranking pollutants in wet-weather discharges as well for ranking the discharges themselves. A reciprocal of the risk is the recurrence interval between the occurrences of such damages. The methodology was documented by calculating risks of four metals in an urban stream.
#|Oanh, N T K; Bengtsson, B E; Reutergaardh, L; Bergqvist, P A; Hynning, P Aa; Remberger, M.  Levels of contaminants in effluent, sediment, and biota from Bai Bang, a bleached kraft pulp and paper mill in Vietnam.  ARCHIVES OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY vol. 29, no. 4, pp. 506-516, 1995.  Chemical analyses of organochlorine compounds in effluents, sediment, and biota samples were done for the Bai Bang Paper Company (BAPACO), a bleached kraft pulp and paper mill in Vietnam. High chlorine consumption in the bleaching process resulted in a high specific discharge of adsorbable organic halogens (AOX), 4.7 kg/ton of air dried pulp (ADP), and polychlorinated phenolic compounds (31 g/ton ADP) in the effluent. The extractable organochlorine content in the accumulated fiber sludge of the sedimentation tank (70-100 mu g/g) was more than 100 times higher than the sediment from the receiving river.  Chlorinated compounds including dioxins were detected at low levels in sediment and rice, crab, mollusc and fish samples. Significant amounts of the chlorinated persistent compounds are probably transported by the Red River to the river mouth and coastal area. Heavy metal content was high in sediment and mollusc samples from the receiving rice field and fish pond. There may be a possible risk for human intoxication of the metals through the aquatic food chain via the mollusc but not via the rice.
#|Oanh, Nguyen Thi Kim; Bengtsson, B E.  Toxicity to Microtox, micro-algae and duckweed of effluents from the Bai Bang Paper Company (Bapaco), a Vietnamese bleached kraft pulp and paper mill.  ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION vol. 90, no. 3, pp. 391-399, 1995.  Toxicity of the combined effluent as well as effluents from different production units of BAPACO, a Vietnamese bleached kraft integrated pulp and paper mill, was studied using three ecotoxicological test: Microtox, the micro-alga, Selenastrum capricornutum, and the duckweed, Lemna aequinoctialis. Physico-chemical characteristics of the effluents were also analyzed. Due to unstable operating conditions of the mill, a number of samples taken at different monitoring periods from each effluent were tested, in order to get statistically reliable ranges and averages of toxicity characteristics. For the mill combined effluent, it was found that the micro-algae were the most sensitive followed by Microtox bacteria, while duckweed was not sensitive. Microtox tests showed that the bleaching filtrate from the chlorination stage (C-stage) was the most toxic among all effluents in the mill. The combined effluent from the bleaching plant contributed the largest TEF (Toxicity Emission Factor) to the toxicity balance of the whole BAPACO combined effluent. A less-than-additive mode of toxicity was obtained. In spite of high pollution loads, e.g. BOD, COD, SS, to the Red River, the toxicity of the effluent was considered to be low. However, during periods of low river water sublethal toxic effects on the biota may be expected.
#|Odokuma, L O ; Okpokwasili, G C. Seasonal influences of the organic pollution monitoring of the New Calabar River, Nigeria. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT vol. 45, no. 1, pp. 43-56, 1997.  Monitoring of the New Calabar River water was conducted monthly for a period of one year to ascertain seasonal influences and industrial effluent discharges on the organic pollution status of the river. Dissolved oxygen (DO) levels ranged between 3.4 and 9.1 mg/l and 4.4-9.0 mg/l for the rainy and dry seasons respectively. Total dissolved solids (TDS) levels ranged between 6.5 and 4013.9 mg/l for the rainy season and 4.32-619.5 mg/l for the dry season. The ranges for the organic pollutant parameters were: biochemical oxygen demand, 0.25-4.20 mg/l and 0.15-4.95 mg/l COD, 10-1000 mg/l and 15-100 mg/l oil and grease, 0.00001-5000 mu g/l and 0.00001-800 mu g/l anionic surfactants, 2.0-30 mu g MBAS/l and 0.1-2.0 mu g MBAS /l for the rainy and dry seasons respectively. The ranges for the same parameters for the industrial effluent were: DO, 2.1-3.9 mg/l and 6.5-10.8 mg/l BCD, 0.35-1.4 mg/l and 2.3-2.7 mg/l COD, 508 mg /l and 20-576 mg/l oil and grase, 0.07-50 mu g/l and 0.048-25.0 mu g /l and anionic surfactants, 4.0-7.3 mu g MBAS/l and 0,2-17.0 mu g MBAS/l for the rainy and dry seasons respectively. These results indicate that seasonal changes as well as industrial effluent discharges influenced the organic load of the river.
#|Ogburn R W III, Hanlon C, Gong S W, & Broughton E.  Compliance with water quality criteria in a multiple-use lake, Lake Okeechobee, Florida.  Lake and Reservoir Management, 12 (3). 1996.  371-380. Lake Okeechobee, Florida, is managed for multiple uses, including drinking water supply, recreation, wildlife habitat, and flood control. Because much of the drainage basin is in agricultural production, maintenance of water quality conditions is a major management consideration for the lake. An evaluation of water quality data collected over a 20-year period indicated that Lake Okeechobee and its major inflows generally comply with applicable numerical criteria, and that parameters that exceeded criteria at inflows have not impaired the designated used of the lake. Of 59,781 water quality measurements, 6,409 (10.7 percent) exceeded that applicable criteria. For most monitored parameters, values that exceeded criteria generally represented less than 25 percent of the measurements at specific locations. Exceptions included dissolved oxygen (DO) and iron. Low DO values ( lt 5.0 mg cntdot L-1) represented 9 to 100 percent of measurements at inflows station, although fewer than one percent of the observations at any in-lake station were below the criterion. Iron values were commonly higher than the applicable criteria at many inflow and in-lake stations. However, most of the high iron values were greater than the secondary drinking water standard, and very few were greater than the criterion for protection of aquatic biota. Trace metals (including mercury) and organic contaminants were rarely greater than the criteria in the lake and its inflows, in spite of the predominance of agriculture in the basin. Pesticide application methods, degradation processes and dilution appear to be responsible for the generally low concentrations of pesticides and herbicides in Lake Okeechobee and its inflows. Many of the criteria that were exceeded are drinking water standards that do not relate to protection of aquatic biota. Because of water treatment processes, they do not appear to have affected the suitability of the lake as a potable water supply. Additional monitoring of biological conditions, in conjunction with continued monitoring of selected water quality parameters, is recommended to document whether the lake and its inflows meet their designated uses.
#|Olander, A.R.  300 Area treated effluent disposal facility operating specifications document.  Department of Energy, Washington, DC.  Contract Number: WHC-SD-L045H-PC-001, Contract AC06-87RL10930.  NTIS/DE95001559, 8p.  TD3: These specifications deal with the release of treated water into the Columbia River via the TEDF submerged outfall. Specific limits are set for contaminants to be discharged in NPDES permit WA-002591-7. This section contains the operating ranges that will be used to best meet the permit limits.
#|Omernik, J. A. Ecoregions: A Spatial Framework for Environmental Management.  Report No.: EPA/600/A-94/170, 1993, 34p.  Biological Assessment and Criteria:Tools for Water Resource Planning and Decision Making for Rivers and Streams, 1993. Order this product from NTIS by:  phone at 1-800-553-NTIS (U.S. customers); (703)605-6000 (other countries); fax at (703)321-8547; and email at orders@ntis.fedworld.gov. The recent interest in ecosystem management has brought an awareness of the need for an appropriate spatial framework for effectively structuring ecosystem management as well as the research, inventory, and monitoring of ecosystems and their components.This paper addresses the complexity of the task of defining ecological regions as well as the concept of regional reference sites, and provides an explanation of the development of the hierarchical ecoregion framework within the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  Comparisons are made with other frameworks such as watersheds or basins.  Also covered are the processes by which ecoregions are refined, subregions are defined, and sets of reference sites are selected viacollaborative projects involving stateand federal resource managers and EPA geographers. Although development of the ecoregion/reference siteframework has to date been largely driven by the needs of state resource management agencies for developing biological criteria, and for setting water quality standards and lake management goals, support has grown for structuring biological risk assessment and ecosystem management in general.
#|Omernik, James M. Ecoregions of the conterminous United States. Rev. 1993.  [Corvallis, Or.]:  Corvallis Environmental Research Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1993.  "US EPA ERL-C, 10/30/93." "Derived from Omerik (1987) and from revisions of Omerik's framework that have been made for other projects." "In collaboration with U.S. EPA regional offices and with state resource management agencies." REPORT NO:  US EPA ERL-C, 10/30/93.
#|Omernik, James M. Level III ecoregions of the continental United States (Revised 1996).  Scale 1:7,500,000. Corvallis, Or. : National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1996.  "EPA 841/E-96/900". Includes two inset maps: Alaska and status of ecoregion revision and subdivision projects as of October 1996. This map is periodically revised when individual state and regional level ecoregion revision and subdivision projects are completed (per compiler).
#|Omernik,-J.M. Distinguishing between ecoregions, lake phosphorus regions, and lake management regions.  Annu. International Symposium of the North American Lake Management Society, Orlando, FL 31 Oct-5 Nov 1994.  LAKE-RESERV.-MANAGE. 1994  vol. 9, no. 2, p. 101.  Geographic frameworks that depict areas of similarity in resource quality, quantity, and interrelationships are necessary for effectively structuring the research, assessment, monitoring, and management of environmental resources. However, like comparing ponchos to tailor-made raincoats, there are differences, similarities, advantages, and limitations in the different types of regional frameworks that are now being used for lake management. Ecological regions have been, and are being, defined at various scales. They provide a multi-purpose framework and have been used for developing biological criteria, setting water quality standards, and guiding lake management decisions. Delineation of ecoregions is accomplished through analysis of information on a combination of spatial characteristics including land use, geology, climate, physiography, potential natural vegetation, and soils. The relative importance of each of these characteristics varies from one area to another regardless of the scale at which the regions are being delineated. Lake phosphorus regions have been compiled for the Northeast and Upper Midwest for the specific purpose of addressing eutrophication issues. Compilation of these maps is based on geographic patterns of phosphorus values in lakes and apparent associations between these patterns and those of landscape and lake morphometric characteristics. A third type of region, -the lake management region, - is currently being defined for Florida. These regions reflect spatial differences in the mosaic of lake types, lake quality, and associations with soils, land use, geology etc. In addition to phosphorus, patterns in a variety of other factors including alkalinity, biological productivity, and color are analyzed to define these regions.
#|O'Neil, P.E.; Harris, S.C.; Mettee, M.F.; Shepard, T.E.; McGregor, S.W.  Surface Discharge of Wastewaters from the Production of Methane from Coal Seams in Alabama, the Cedar Cove Model.  Final rept.  Jan  91-Dec  92.  Gas Research  Inst., Chicago, IL. Environment and Safety Research Dept.  Contract Number: Contract GRI-5091-253-2100.  NTIS/PB94-173267, Also available in set of 2 reports PC E99/MF E99, PB94-171626.,  262p. TD3:  The Cedar Cove model is an instream monitoring methodology that can be followed to determine if a discharged effluent is in compliance with water-quality criteria, toxicity testing requirements, and whether the discharged effluent poses biological risk downstream of a permitted discharge point.  Data are presented developing the theoretical basis for various components of the Cedar Cove model. The model was applied to two active points of discharge in the Warrior basin demonstrating the acceptability of surface discharge for selected production-water effluents and the applicability of the monitoring approach.  Stabilization and aeration lagoon treatment systems for production waters were analyzed through a design exercise for production waters of low and moderately high salinity.  Alternative treatment technologies of electrodialysis, reverse osmosis, and evaporation are described with a brief comparison of costs associated with all production-water disposal options considered technically feasible. See also Volume 1, PB94-173259.
#|Ono,-Y.; Somiya,-I.; Kawaguchi,-T.; Mohri,-S.  Evaluation of toxic substances in effluents from a wastewater treatment plant. DESALINATION 1996  vol. 106, no. 1-3, pp. 255-261.  The experimental investigation of effluent from municipal wastewater treatment plants and nightsoil treatment plants was conducted from the viewpoint of safe effluent water quality to evaluate the strategies and regulations for wastewater reuse. A bacterial assay named umu-test, which can detect error-prone repair dependent on DNA damage by some chemicals, was applied to samples from treatment plants. Concentrates of secondary effluent of municipal sewage treatment plant revealed strong genotoxicity, and its activity could be observed every day of the week. Also, the samples from secondary effluent separated by ultrafiltration in a nightsoil treatment plant showed positive genotoxicity. Newly developed strains which are Salmonella typhimurium in umu-test are highly sensitive to aromatic amines and can detect the genotoxic activity induced by these compounds. By using this method, the genotoxic potency of above samples was examined. The toxicity on aromatic amines could be detected in the matter contained in raw nightsoil. This shows that human feces involve some genotoxic substances and the genotoxicity could not be reduced through the biological treatment with nitrification and denitrification, nor removed by the ultrafilter separation process. A coagulation-sedimentation process could partially remove the toxic substances from the solution and activated carbon adsorption could almost remove the substances. The liquid chromatography column was applied to fraction the concentrated substances to elute the toxic substances from samples. Some genotoxic fractions related to aromatic amines would be observed more clearly by this method. In order to reuse the effluent from the treatment plant of the very close side to human body, the reduction of those genotoxicities is expected from the viewpoint of human health. From the results of ozone application to the effluent, it was found that the genotoxicity could be clearly reduced to a negative level at the ozone consumption ratio of 1 mgO sub(3 consumed)/mgC.
#|Oppenheimer, Joan A., Montgomery Watson, Pasadena, CA; Jacangelo, Joseph G.; Laine, Jean-Michel; Hoagland, John E.  Testing the Equivalency of Ultraviolet Light and Chlorine for Disinfection of Wastewater to Reclamation Standards.  Water Environ Res  v69, n1, p14(11) Jan-Feb 97.  At a wastewater-treatment plant in southern California, a study was conducted to compare the wastewater disinfection equivalency of UV light and chlorine. Coliform, fecal coliform, fecal streptococci, enterococci and heterotrophic plate count were analyzed according to standard methods, and disinfection byproducts and chronic whole-effluent toxicity were assessed. Results showed that UV light was as effective as Cl in disinfecting the wastewater, while also reducing the formation of known and potential carcinogenic disinfection byproducts. When a full-scale UV system was used, the theoretical detention times could be used to approximate the full-scale UV dose needed for effective disinfection. The byproducts formed during Cl disinfection were mainly trihalomethanes and aldehydes, which were not found after UV disinfection.
#|Oppenheimer, John A.; Jacangelo, Joseph G.; Laine, Jean-Michel; Hoagland, John E. Equivalency Testing of Ultraviolet Disinfection for Wastewater Reclamation.  Proceedings 1995 Water Quality Technology Conference; Part I  New Orleans, LA., November 12-16, 1995. p313-332, 1996. AWWA.  Reclamation of wastewater for nonrestricted recreational use necessitates production of an effluent that meets potable water standards. The effectiveness of chlorine as a disinfectant has been well documented, but recent concerns have arisen over the potential toxicity of chlorination by products. UV light disinfection is being utilized in place of chlorine at secondary wastewater treatment facilities throughout North America. This research was designed to demonstrate the "equivalency" of UV and chlorine disinfection by simultaneously evaluating performance of both treatment processes at full-scale over an extended period of operation. The study evaluated the ability of chlorine and UV to consistently achieve adequate reduction of indigenous fecal coliform, indigenous fecal streptococci, indigenous enterococci, indigenous heterotrophic plate count (HPC), seeded poliovirus, and seeded MS2 bacteriophage at the doses providing total coliform density less than or equal to 2.2 MPN/100 mL. Bench-scale studies were also performed to determine the predictive values of bench-scale data for full-scale process performance. Formation of disinfection byproducts was also monitored through extensive characterization of the organic content of the treated effluent preceding and following UC and chlorine disinfection. The chronic whole effluent toxicity (WET) was also characterized through comparison of WET data obtained for the full-scale treated effluent preceding and following disinfection by UV and chlorine.
#|Outlaw, G. S., Hoos, A. B., & Pankey, J. T.  (1995).  Rainfall, streamflow, and water-quality data for five small watersheds, Nashville, Tennessee, 1990-92. USGS Open File Report: 94-68. Rainfall, streamflow, and water-quality data were collected during storm conditions at five urban watersheds in Nashville, Tennessee. These data can be used to build a database for developing predictive models of the relations between stormwater quality and land use, storm characteristics, and seasonal variations. The primary land and mix of land uses was different for each watershed. Stormwater samples were collected during three storms at each watershed and analyzed for selected volatile, acidic and base/neutral organic compounds organic pesticides trace metals conventional pollutants and several physical properties. Storm loads were computed for all constituents and properties with event mean concentration above the minimum reporting level. None of the samples contained acidic organic compounds at concentrations above the minimum reporting levels. Several constituents in each of the other categories, however, were present at concentrations above the minimum reporting level. For 21 of these constituents, water-quality criteria have been promulgated by the State of Tennessee. For only 8 of the 21 did the value exceed the most restrictive of the criteria: pyrene, dieldrin, and mercury concentrations and counts of fecal coliform exceeded the criteria for recreational use, copper and zinc concentrations and pH value exceeded the criteria for fish and aquatic life, and lead concentrations exceeded the criteria for domestic supply.
#|Overstreet, R M ; Hawkins, W E ; Deardorff, T L. The western mosquitofish as an environmental sentinel: Parasites and histological lesions.  ENVIRONMENTAL FATE AND EFFECTS OF PULP AND PAPER MILL EFFLUENTS. Servos, M R ; Munkittrick, K R ; Carey, J H ; van der Kraak, G J  (eds ) pp. 495-509, 1996.  Iinternational Conference on Environmental Fate and Effects of Bleached Pulp Mill Effluents.  Vancouver, British Columbia (Canada), 1994 Nov 6-10.  ST. LUCIE PRESS: DELRAY BEACH, FL. Combining parasitological with histopathological data from the western mosquitofish inhabiting sites above, below, and in an integrated pulp and paper mill effluent canal along the Sulphur River in Texas and Arkansas demonstrates that the western mosquitofish (Gambusia affinis) serves as a good sentinel. Fish from the canal habitat receiving direct effluent as well as those downstream to the mill effluent canal were healthy in terms of species richness of parasites and of being free from pathogenic parasites known to be associated with stress. Histopathologic examination of mosquitofish specimens supported by additional tissues known to respond to toxicant challenge from large fish specimens collected at the same sites revealed no cancerous or other lesions or abnormalities that could be related to anthropogenic chemical toxicants. In fact, from the 4,324 slides of 816 fish examined, only one lesion was found that resembled a neoplastic lesion. That lesion, a "pre"-neoplastic one and one representing no more than background level, was in the liver of a freshwater drum from a tributary to the river. The most stressed site, based on low species richness of particular parasites, invasion into host tissues by a ciliate, a high prevalence of macrophage aggregates in the spleen, and high prevalence of vacuolated hepatocytes, occurred upstream from the effluent canal.
#|Owens, J W ; Swanson, S M ; Birkholz, D A.  Environmental monitoring of bleached kraft pulp mill chlorophenolic compounds in a northern Canadian river system.  CHEMOSPHERE vol. 29, no. 1, pp. 89-109 , 1994.  The environmental transport of pulp mill effluent compounds and the exposure of two fish species has been monitored by parallel analyses of effluent, water column and suspended sediment samples, and fish bile and muscle. Compounds analyzed included over 20 chlorophenolic compounds and 12 fatty and resin acids. The concentration of chlorophenols varied with seasonal river flows and mill process changes such as the substitution of chlorine dioxide (ClO sub(2)) for chlorine gas (Cl sub(2)) in the bleach plant. At 100% (ClO sub(2)) substitution, the effluent and the water column concentrations of most chlorophenolics approached the analytical detection limits of 0.1-1 parts per billion. Chlorophenolic and fatty/resin acid compounds were detected in the bile of both mountain whitefish (Prosopium williamsoni) and longnose sucker (Catostomus catostomus), but were rarely detected in fillets. Fish bile concentrations were observed in an apparent spatial gradient as far as 230 km downstream of the mill. A depuration experiment with fish held in uncontaminated water for eight days indicated a rapid decrease in chlorophenol levels. The observations corroborate previous investigations that chlorophenolic compounds are rapidly excreted and can be used as sensitive markers for recent exposure to mill effluents.
#|Owens,-J.W.  Regulation of pulp mill aquatic discharges: Current status and needs from an international perspective. ENVIRONMENTAL FATE AND EFFECTS OF PULP AND PAPER MILL EFFLUENTS. Servos,-M.R.; Munkittrick,-K.R.; Carey,-J.H.; van-der-Kraak,-G.J. (eds.)  DELRAY BEACH, FL 33483 (USA)  ST. LUCIE PRESS.1996 pp. 661-671. The co-evolution of pulp mill process engineering, environmental science, and regulatory discharge requirements which began in the early 1970s continues today. There is a general international convergence in both regulatory parameters and current regulatory issues. Organic/nutrient enrichment and acute toxicity issues are largely resolved. Similarly, the discovery of persistent and bioaccumulating substances in the bleach plant has resulted in the virtual replacement of chlorine gas. Currently, the primary issues are identification of the sources of potential sublethal toxicity in aquatic organisms and the further minimization of aquatic discharges. In Canada, efforts focus on the development of environmental surveillance and laboratory techniques to address sublethal alterations in reproductive hormones. Unmet needs in this approach include the interpretive experience to understand site and ecosystem variability in surveillance data. In the U.S., efforts focus on a revision of effluent command and control regulations. In Nordic geographies, efforts focus on process development to minimize discharge loads and volumes to low levels. Unmet needs for these approaches include the capability to identify, quantify, and then balance environmental benefits against the environmental and social costs of further effluent regulation and minimization.
#|PABLO F, BUCKNEY RT, & LIM RP. (1997). TOXICITY OF CYANIDE, IRON-CYANIDE COMPLEXES, AND A BLAST-FURNACE EFFLUENT TO LARVAE OF THE DOUGHBOY SCALLOP, CHLAMYS ASPERRIMUS.  BULLETIN OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY,V58, N1, P93-100.
#|Pacheco,-M.; Santos,-M.A.; van-der-Gaag,-M.A. The ecotoxicological relevance of Anguilla anguilla L. as a proposed cytogenetic model for brackish-water genetic toxicological studies.  PROCEEDINGS OF THE SECOND EUROPEAN CONFERENCE ON ECOTOXICOLOGY. Sloof,-W.; de-Kruijf,-H. (eds.)  1993 pp. 817-822. The Sister Chromatid Exchange (SCE) Assay was specially adapted to Anguilla anguilla L. Cyclophosphamide (CP) was used as a standard on the SCE frequency study in Anguilla anguilla L. The 50 and 75% Bleached Kraft Pulp Mill Effluent (BKPME) was used to study the SCE frequency in Anguilla anguilla L. in comparison with the standard cyclophosphamide results. The experimental results showed that the SCE assay is 33 h longer in Anguilla anguilla L. and also that the SCE frequency is lower in animals exposed either to cyclophosphamide or to 50 or 75% BKPME. However, further experiments with 75% BKPME showed an increase in the eel's SCE frequency compared to 50% BKPME, but it was still lower than the cyclophosphamide standard. In summary, the relevance of ecotoxicological tests, concerning the effect of industrial effluents containing potential genotoxic substances, should be based on the use of a wide range of species living in a particular habitat.
#|Palacios P.L.; Casado H.; Mesanza J.M.; Castillo F.J.  1995.  Pinus radiata site quality study in the Basque Country (Spain) using nutritional and physiographical criteria.  Water, Air, and Soil Pollution;  85/3 (1275-1280).  Nutrient status in Pinus radiata sites in the Basque Country (Spain have been established. Current-year, 1-year-old needles, and soil samples were collected in 7 sites. Needle samples were analyzed for calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), potassium (K), phosphorus (P) and nitrogen (N). Soil samples were analyzed for pH (H2O), N, P, Ca, Mg, K and aluminium (Al). The results indicate differences between sites and needles of different ages. In general, nutrient concentrations in needles are sufficient for the nutritive requirements, but some low concentrations of Mg and P found in 1-year-old needles, indicate that some trees may show signs of deficiency in the near future. In turn, N concentrations are, in many cases, higher than those usually found in this species and may originate growth disorders. These concentrations may be related to NO3- and NH4+ deposition. Soil nutrients are sufficient for trees requirements, but the levels of K and Mg are low.  Soil pH values are not very acid, and the value of the Ca/Al ratio is, in general, near 1. An arrangement of sites and physiographical and nutritional parameters based on correlation and principal component analysis is also presented.
#|Paller MH, Reichert MJM, Dean JM.  Use of fish communities to assess environmental impacts in South Carolina coastal plain streams.  TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN FISHERIES SOCIETY 125: (5) 633-644 SEP 1996.  We developed an index of biotic integrity (IBI) and a biotic index based on fish species richness (FSBI) to assess the ecological health of streams on the Savannah River Site, a 780-km(2) U.S. Department of Energy facility located in the Sand Hills ecoregion on the upper coastal plain of South Carolina. To maintain the responsiveness of the IBI to a variety of impacts yet incorporate sufficient ecoregion specificity to achieve acceptable accuracy, we included metrics from each of six metric categories proven useful in other ecoregions (species number, species composition, trophic composition, local indicator species, fish abundance, and fish condition) but selected specific metrics within each category based on their ability to discriminate between disturbed and undisturbed sites in the Sand Hills ecoregion. We also developed a procedure based on species-area curves to remove the potentially confounding effects of site-specific differences in sample unit size and sampling effort from species number metrics. With these changes, the modified IBI was minimally affected by sample unit size and sampling effort and accurately discriminated undisturbed sites from sites affected by physical habitat alterations, thermal effluents, and chemical pollution. The FSBI, based on four species richness metrics (adjusted for the effects of sample unit size and sampling effort), discriminated between disturbed and undisturbed streams approximately as well as the modified IBI. The precision of both indices was affected by sample reach length, with samples from 50-m reaches exhibiting relatively low precision and samples from 150-m reaches high precision.
#|Palmer, R M.  Sewage treatment challenges and opportunities in the Nottawasaga River watershed.  WATER QUALITY RESEARCH JOURNAL OF CANADA vol. 32, no. 4, pp. 733-750, 1997.  Sewage treatment studies at the watershed scale, compared to case-by-case community projects, ensures the most cost-efficient investment of funds commensurate with environmental requirements to sustain growth. A three-year environmental assessment study for the town of New Tecumseth, Ontario, examined all nutrient inputs to the Nottawasaga River watershed. Other challenging watershed constraints were investigated, such as stream and river flow takings for irrigation and sediment transport, prior to the selection of the master sewage treatment plan. The findings from the field research and computer modelling were used to (1) place a realistic perspective on nutrient impacts, present and future, attributable to treated sewage effluent (2) design a master plan that could be used as an opportunity in terms of reusing the effluent locally for agricultural irrigation (3) provide a real-time assurance of the plan's performance/compliance, based on the actual carrying capacity of the aquatic ecosystem (4)stage the construction of the plan in a cost-effective and environmentally sound manner and (5) recommend a water resources management strategy to control other nutrient and sediment load sources within the watershed. The recommended master sewage treatment plan and water resources management strategy can restore the Ministry of Environment and Energy provincial water quality objective concentration for total phosphorus within the river during 7Q sub(20) flow conditions.
#|Pardos M; Blaise C. Aspects of toxicity and genotoxicity assessment of hydrophobic organic compounds in wastewater. Canadian Technical Report of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences (2192):p13 1997.  24th Annual Aquatic Toxicity Workshop Niagara Falls, Ontario, Canada  October 20-22, 1997
#|Park-JG; Curtis-LR. Mercury distribution in sediments and bioaccumulation by fish in two Oregon reservoirs: point-source and nonpoint-source impacted systems. Archives-of-Environmental-Contamination-and-Toxicology. 1997, 33: 4, 423-429.  Mercury pollution was compared in two Oregon (USA) reservoirs of similar size and age, located within the same ecoregion. Cottage Grove Reservoir was distinguished by a history of mercury mining and processing within its watershed, while Dorena Reservoir was not. Mercury concentrations in sediments of the reservoirs, tributary streams, and three species of fish were measured. Sediment mercury concentrations in the main tributary of Cottage Grove Reservoir, which drains the sub-basin where past mercury mining occurred, was tenfold higher than mercury in sediments from other reservoir tributaries. There were no significant differences between sediment mercury concentrations in the tributaries of Dorena Reservoir. The average mercury concentration in the basin sediment of Cottage Grove Reservoir (0.67 ¤0.05 ‘g/g dry wt) was higher than for Dorena Reservoir (0.12 ¤0.01 ‘g/g dry wt). At Cottage Grove Reservoir, maximum mercury concentrations were near or >1 ‘g/g wet wt for largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) and bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus) epaxial muscle. Muscle mercury concentrations in largemouth bass and crappie (Pomoxis nigromaculatus) from Cottage Grove Reservoir were significantly higher than from the same species from Dorena Reservoir. Numbers of bluegill of the same age available from both reservoirs were too small for statistical comparisons. Mercury concentrations in largemouth bass muscle fluctuated annually in both reservoirs. Fish ages were consistently positively correlated with muscle mercury concentrations in only the point-source-impacted reservoir. These results indicated that a point source, Black Butte Mine, contributed amounts of mercury greatly in excess of mobilization from natural deposits, atmospheric deposition, and small-scale uses of the metal as an amalgamating agent in gold mining.
#|Paton, G I ; Palmer, G ; Kindness, A ; Campbell, C ; Glover, L A ; Killham, K.  Use of luminescence-marked bacteria to assess copper bioavailability in malt whisky distillery effluent.  CHEMOSPHERE vol. 31, no. 5, pp. 3217-3224, 1995.  Samples were taken from upstream, influent, effluent, and downstream locations of a whisky distillery in north east Scotland, and the concentration of inorganic pollutants determined using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. The principal contaminant was found to be Cu, and three bioluminescence based microbial bioassays were carried out to assess the bioavailability of Cu. One assay involved standard use of a naturally luminescent marine bacterium and two involved use of genetically modified (luminescence-marked) terrestrial bacteria. Use of the luminescence-marked biosensors was found to be the most sensitive and reproducible, offering assessment of toxicity over a wide pH range.
#|Patten Duncan T; Stromberg Juliet C; Fry Jana; Sommerfeld Milton R; Kramer Christine.  Interrelationships among land use, water use, riparian communities and water quality on an effluent dominated river in the Southwest. Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America 75 (2 PART 2):p175-176 1994.
#|PAUL VI, & BANERJEE TK. (1996). AMMONIUM-SULFATE INDUCED STRESS-RELATED ALTERATIONS IN THE OPERCULAR EPIDERMIS OF THE LIVE FISH HETEROPNEUSTES (SACCOBRANCHUS) FOSSILIS (BLOCH).  CURRENT SCIENCE, V70, N11, P1025-1029. Histopathological analysis of the sublethal toxicity induced by 0.2 g/l (10% of 96 h LC(50) value) of the inorganic fertilizer ammonium sulphate to the outer and inner opercular epidermis of Heteropneustes fossilis has been made. Density and dimension of the goblet mucous cells (MCs) of the outer opercular epidermis increase enormously in the initial stages of exposure. Perinuclear vacuoles appear in the necrotic epithelial cells (ECs) which also bear pyknotic nuclei before their shedding at several stages of treatment. The club cells also exhibit great vacuolization. The damage becomes more extensive in later stages of exposure when severe wear and tear of the epidermis take place. The inner opercular lining however does not show such massive necrotic changes. Hyperplasia of the ECs and great vacuolization at various stages of exposure are the main histopathological alterations.
#|PAUL VI, & BANERJEE TK. (1996). AMMONIUM-SULFATE INDUCED STRESS-RELATED ALTERATIONS IN THE RESPIRATORY EPITHELIUM OF THE AIRBREATHING ORGAN OF THE CATFISH HETEROPNEUSTES-FOSSILIS (BLOCH).  JOURNAL OF BIOSCIENCES, V21, N4, P519-526.  In this paper, histopathological changes in the inner lining of the accessory respiratory organ of Heteropneustes fossilis following exposure to sublethal concentration (0.2 gl(-1)) of ammonium sulphate (3 mgl(-1) total ammonia-N) has been described. The goblet cells show periodic increased followed by decreased secretory activities. Necrosis and shedding of the epithelial cells over the secondary lamellae cause periodic haemorrhages which lead to degeneration and decreased number of secondary lamellae. Subsequently regeneration takes place each time as evidenced by the appearance of inflammatory tissue. Fusion of more than one secondary lamellae is also common, Regeneration also leads to uncontrolled hyperplasia of haphazardly arranged epithelial cells. This hyperplasia causes increased distance of respiratory blood-air barrier in the secondary lamellae, leading to impaired normal aerial respiration.
#|Payne JF; Malins DC; Gunselman S; Rahimtula A; Yeats, PA.  DNA oxidative damage and vitamin a reduction in fish from a large lake system in Labrador, Newfoundland, contaminated with iron-ore mine tailings.  MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH, 1998, V46, N1-5 (JUL-DEC), P 289-294.  Reactive ox),gen species are believed to play an important role in a variety of pathological conditions and considerable speculation has arisen on whether contaminants might play, a role in human and animal health through enhancement of various oxidative processes. Although epidemiologica information is limited with respect to observations on either humans or wildlife, evidence has been produced for pollutant-mediated DNA oxidative damage in fish in Puget Sound. We now provide evidence for a level of DNA oxidative damage in trout from a large lake system in Labrador, Newfoundland, receiving effluents from iron-ore mines. Studies were carried out by CC-MS with selected ion monitoring and higher levels of the ring opening products, Fapyguanine and Fapyadenine, were detected in the DNA of liver tissues of fish from the lake receiving the highest load of iron-ore tailings. Notably, fish in this lake also had markedly reduced levels of vitamin A. The study provides a second case history for oxidative damage in fish in the environment and indicates the potential importance of transition heavy metals such as iron in producing damage. It also lend; support to the evolving viewpoint that many water quality guidelines should be revisited in terms of new ecotoxicological criteria.
#|Pedersen, F ; Damborg, A ; Kristensen, P.  Danish strategy for investigating industrial effluents.  PROCEEDINGS OF THE SECOND EUROPEAN CONFERENCE ON ECOTOXICOLOGY.  Sloof, W ; de Kruijf, H  (eds ).  SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT vol. Suppl. Pts. 1-2 pp. 1115-1122.  1993. 2. European Conf. on Ecotoxicology.  Amsterdam (Netherlands).  1992 May 11-15.  A stepwise strategy for investigating and testing industrial effluents has been set up. At each step a hazard or risk assessment may be performed with the aim of giving permit writers the possibility of setting up conditions for discharge of waste water and to identify important data gaps, which seriously may influence the strength of the assessment. The first step in the strategy includes a collection and evaluation of all relevant existing data. The following steps include gradually more advanced and comprehensive investigations and tests on fate and effects of the effluent, including information on composition and variability of the waste water, transport and distribution in the environment, biodegradation, bioaccumulation and toxicity. Advice is given on appropriate investigation and test methods at each step, ensuring that reliable data are available for hazard and risk assessment as well as for decisions regarding discharge limits.
#|Pedersen, F ; Petersen, G I.  Variability of species sensitivity to complex mixtures. HAZARD ASSESSMENT AND CONTROL OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINANTS IN WATER. Nyholm, N ; Jacobsen, B N (eds ).  WATER SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY vol. 33, no. 6 pp. 109-119, 1996. IAWQ Int. Specialized Conference on Hazard Assessment and Control of Environmental Contaminants in Water.  Lyngby (Denmark), 1995 Jun 29-30.  In Denmark, as well as in a few other countries, the regulatory practice for granting permits for discharge of industrial waste water is based on evaluation of the potential effects of both the individual chemical substances in the waste water and the complex waste water itself by establishing predicted-no-effect-concentrations" (PNECs).  The present study was initiated in order to establish an extrapolation method for deriving PNECs for complex mixtures. The toxicity of 5 complex mixtures comprising from 5 to 20 different substances was tested with 5 different species/test systems: the green alga Rhaphidocellis subcapitata, daphnia (Daphnia magna), zebra fish (Brachydanio rerio), duckweed (Lemna minor) and Microtox (Vibrio fischeri). The results of the tests showed that the differences in sensitivity of the test species were considerably lower (5-12 times) than was the case for the individual substances present in the complex mixtures. Thus, based on the differences in sensitivity of the species, application factors for complex mixtures are proposed. Moreover, the results showed that the joint toxicity of the complex mixtures could be described by assuming that the toxicity of the individual substances in the mixtures was more or less additive.
#|Pelayo, Aristeo M.; Abrajano, Teofilo A., Jr. Understanding Generic Soil Cleanup Levels:  Implication on Agricultural Chemicals.  J Soil Contam  v7, n3, p357(14), May 98.  Although federal and state regulations governing water quality have long been established, none have been created to govern soil contamination problems. The US EPA recently designed a procedural model for evaluating the minimum contaminant levels in soils. The proposed scheme merits additional evaluation at the federal level. The model for defining federal soil screening levels was modified to help determine state regulatory soil residual contaminant levels in the state of Wisconsin. Simplified equations are proposed for assessing the regulatory soil levels of semivolatile compounds in residential situations. Differences between federal and state soil contaminant limits are investigated. The implications of these regulatory trends for agricultural chemicals are discussed.
#|Pelletier, G. (1996). Applying metals criteria to water quality-based discharge limits. Empirical models of the dissolved fraction of cadmium, copper, lead, and zinc.  Report.  DEPARTMENT OF ECOLOGY PUBLICATIONS no. 96-339.  26 pp. This report compares the results of recently collected metals data in the state of Washington with models for metals partitioning that are advocated by EPA. New models were also developed using data from rivers in Washington. Technical guidance for permit managers is proposed to support water quality-based permitting for metals under the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES). The EPA screening models were found to poorly represent data from rivers in Washington. Dissolved fractions of Cd, Cu, and Zn were under-estimated, and the dissolved fraction of Pb was over-estimated by the EPA models. Under-estimation of the dissolved fraction of metals could lead to exceedence of the water quality criteria in NPDES permitting. These results indicate that the EPA models should not be used to estimate fractions of dissolved metals in Washington's rivers. The poor performance of the EPA models for Cd, Cu, Pb, and Zn also suggests that the EPA models for other metals should not be used. Empirical models from data in Washington were developed and proposed as an interim measure in NPDES permitting until site-specific data are available. Dissolved fractions of Cu and Zn were found to be significantly correlated with total suspended solids. Regression equations were developed to allow prediction of dissolved fractions of Cu and Zn from total suspended solids with a margin of safety to account for data variability. Dissolved fractions of Cd and Pb were found to be poorly correlated with other water quality variables. Estimated 90th and 95th percentiles of dissolved Cd and Pb fractions from available state-wide data were proposed for use in NPDES permitting in the absence of site-specific data.
#|Peter, S ; Siersdorfer, C ; Kaltwasser, H ; Geiger, M.  Toxicity estimation of treated coke plant wastewater using the luminescent bacteria assay and the algal growth inhibition test.  ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND WATER QUALITY vol. 10, no. 3, pp. 179-184, 1995.  Among several bioassays, the Scenedesmus subspicatus chlorophyll fluorescence test and the Photobacterium phosphoreum bioluminescence assay were selected to examine their applicability for toxicity evaluation of changes in coke plant effluent quality. In addition to the ecotoxicological parameters, a chemical analysis of dissolved organic carbon (DOC), ammonia-N, and nitrate-N was performed. It was demonstrated that the toxicity values obtained from the bioassays give a first indication on potential hazard and successful treatment.  Decreasing toxicity values went along with decreasing DOC or ammonia-N values, but the sensitivity toward DOC reduction was higher.  Sensitivity toward pure compounds was assessed by comparing the EC sub(50) values of the luminescent bacteria assay with the corresponding EC sub(50) values of the algal bioassay. The data showed a poor correlation between the two bioassays.
#|Peterson SA. Larsen DP. Paulsen SG. Urquhart NS . ENVIRONMENTAL AUDITING - REGIONAL LAKE TROPHIC PATTERNS IN THE NORTHEASTERN UNITED STATES - THREE APPROACHES. Environmental Management. 22(5):789-801, 1998 Sep-Oct. During the summers of 1991-1994, the Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program (EMAP) conducted variable probability sampling on 344 lakes throughout the northeastern United States. Trophic state data were analyzed for the Northeast as a whole and for each of its three major ecoregions-the Adirondacks (ADI), the New England Uplands (NEU), and the Coastal Lowland and Plateau (CLP)-and inferred to the entire population of lakes greater than or equal to 1 ha (N = 11,076). Results were compared to a large, nonrandomly sampled data set for the same area compiled by Rohm and others and contrasted with lake trophic state information published in the National Water Quality Inventory: 1994 Report to Congress [305(b) report. Lakes across the entire Northeast were identified by EMAP data as 37.9% (+/-8.4%) oligotrophic, 40.1% (+/-9.7%) mesotrophic, 12.6% (+/-7.9%)eutrophic, and 9.3% (+/-6.3%) hypereutrophic. Lakes in the ADI and NEU generally are at a low, nearly identical trophic state (96% oligotrophic/mesotrophic), while those in the CLP are much richer (45% eutrophic). EMAP results are similar to results of the Rohm data set across the entire region. In the CLP, however, EMAP identified approximately 45% of the lakes as eutrophic/hypereutrophic, while the Rohm data set identified only 21% in these categories. Across the entire Northeast, the 305(b) report identified a much higher proportion (32.2%) or lakes in eutrophic condition and a much smaller proportion (19.8%) in oligotrophic condition than did the EMAP survey data(12.5% +/- 7.9% and 37.9% +/- 8.5%, respectively). Probability sampling has several advantages over nonrandom sampling when regional resource condition assessment is the goal.
#|Peterson, H. G., Nyholm, N., Nelson, M., Powell, R., Huang, P. M., Scroggins, R., Nyholm, N., & Jacobsen, B. N. e. (1996). Development of aquatic plant bioassays for rapid screening and interpretive risk assessments of metal mining liquid waste waters: HAZARD ASSESSMENT AND CONTROL OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINANTS IN WATER.  WATER SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, pp. 155-161-vol. 33, no. 6. The use of non-photosynthetic organisms alone to describe environmental impact has been recognized by regulatory agencies, industry, and academia as being insufficient both in Europe and North America. Lack of adequate testing methods for photosynthetic aquatic organisms is considered as a major impediment to the successful regulation and safe use of pesticides and waste water discharges and is of even more concern to the metal mining industry due to the non-biodegradable nature of its waste streams. This work shows that the chemical effluent limits set in the "Metal mining liquid effluent regulations and guidelines" provide variable protection of aquatic photosynthetic organisms. Aquatic effects of the more toxic metals (e.g., copper, nickel, and zinc) may occur at levels that are one to two orders of magnitude lower than present limits. To establish adequate protection of receiving water bodies it may be necessary to establish site-specific criteria taking into consideration toxicity modifying factors of individual sites. If the establishment of such criteria is determined with a host of ecologically relevant organisms, it will be possible to design effective environmental protection at the least possible cost.
#|Peterson, L. A. (1994).  Human health criteria and arsenic.  RZA AGRA Alaska, Inc: Fairbanks. Fairbanks.
#|Peterson,-H.G.; Nyholm,-N.; Nelson,-M.; Powell,-R.; Huang,-P.M.; Scroggins,-R.  Development of aquatic plant bioassays for rapid screening and interpretive risk assessments of metal mining liquid waste waters. HAZARD ASSESSMENT AND CONTROL OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINANTS IN WATER. Nyholm,-N.; Jacobsen,-B.N. (eds.)  1996 pp. 155-161.  WATER-SCI.-TECHNOL. vol. 33, no. 6, 1996. The use of non-photosynthetic organisms alone to describe environmental impact has been recognized by regulatory agencies, industry, and academia as being insufficient both in Europe and North America. Lack of adequate testing methods for photosynthetic aquatic organisms is considered as a major impediment to the successful regulation and safe use of pesticides and waste water discharges and is of even more concern to the metal mining industry due to the non-biodegradable nature of its waste streams. This work shows that the chemical effluent limits set in the "Metal mining liquid effluent regulations and guidelines" provide variable protection of aquatic photosynthetic organisms. Aquatic effects of the more toxic metals (e.g., copper, nickel, and zinc) may occur at levels that are one to two orders of magnitude lower than present limits. To establish adequate protection of receiving water bodies it may be necessary to establish site-specific criteria taking into consideration toxicity modifying factors of individual sites. If the establishment of such criteria is determined with a host of ecologically relevant organisms, it will be possible to design effective environmental protection at the least possible cost.
#|Petrovic, O ; Nenin, P ; Radnovic, D. Microbiological indicators of the Nisava River water quality.  ACTA BIOL. IUGOSL. (B MIKROBIOL.) vol. 33, no. 1, pp. 53-62, 1996.  This paper presents the results of microbiological investigation of the Nisava river water performed on the basis of standard microbiological methods involving direct counting on membrane filters and cultivation techniques. Samples were taken at four sampling sites along the Sicevo Gorge. Total bacteria count, number of heterotrophs and facultative oligotrophs and the presence of the representatives of a number of physiological groups, such as proteolytic, lipolytic, saccharolytic, phenol- and oil-oxidizing, nitrifying, denitrifying and ammonia-producing bacteria, were determined. Moreover, the total phosphatase activity of the examined water was also measured. For the purpose of water quality assessment, in addition to the abovementioned, the following microbiological indicators were also used: categorization according to Kohl (Kohl 1975), phosphatase activity index (PAI), total bacteria count to heterotrophs count ratio (T/H index), and number of oligotrophs to heterotrophs ratio (O/H index). The results obtained showed that the Nisava river water mostly belongs to III-IV or IV class, which indicating an organic water load of a heterogeneous origin. According to the investigated microbiological indicators, the poorest water quality was recorded for the sample from site 4, located downstream from the factory waste water effluent. Nevertheless, the determined O/H index points out to a still satisfying water self-purification capacity.
#|Petruck, A ; Sperling, F. Radar-aided CSO-control - Criteria for an ecological approach.  URBAN STORM DRAINAGE 1996.  Sieker, F ; Verworn, H R (eds ).  WATER SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY vol. 36, no. 8-9 405 pp, 1997.  The control strategy of a combined sewer system incorporating three stormwater storage tanks with overflows presented here attempts to consider all aspects of acute CSO effects. These are the hydraulic and the composition components as well as the time factor. The result is an integrated approach, which is not based on the classic emission view (i.e. reduction of volume), but on pollution criteria (i.e. possible harm to the biotic community). The aim is to reduce the exceeding of critical peak values of the CSO components at critical time intervals. Control decisions will be based on continuous measurements in the sewer system and in the receiving stream.  Furthermore the measurements are carried out to determine the effects (both hydraulic and chemical) of particular CSO discharges in order to evolve the critical values for the project area. The chemical and physical measurements are accompanied by a biological monitoring programme. Macroinvertebrates are sampled upstream and downstream of outfalls and at a reference site. This allows the evaluation of the control measures on an ecological basis, and thus an assessment of the ecological potential of radar-aided real-time control of the combined sewer systems.
#|Pfau W.  DNA adducts in marine and freshwater fish as biomarkers of environmental contamination.  BIOMARKERS, 1997, V2, N3 (MAY-JUN), P145-151. The analysis of DNA modifications in aquatic animals may serve as a sensitive marker of exposure to genotoxic contaminants. This is of importance in assessing water quality regarding pollution with genotoxic compounds, food safety analysing edible aquatic animals and in terms of ecotoxicology. Covalent modification of DNA is considered a crucial event in chemical carcinogenesis and thus may be considered a biomarker of an early genotoxic effect. Measuring DNA adducts is unique in that these lesions may be considered a biomarker of both exposure and effect. A number of studies have described the analysis of the DNA isolated from the liver of both freshwater and marine fish. Considerable levels of DNA adducts have been observed in some animals from contaminated lakes or rivers. Low levels were observed in DNA from the liver of marine fish. The background levels of DNA adducts have to be determined in animals from appropriate uncontaminated control sites that are matched for species, gender, age and season of the year. It is of crucial importance to consider the species analysed since there have been reports of the non-responsiveness of some species.
#|Phipps G L, Mattson V R, & Ankley G T.  Relative sensitivity of three freshwater benthic macroinvertebrates to ten contaminants.  Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 28 (3). 1995.  281-286.  The objective of this study was to determine the suitability of Hyalella azteca, Chironomus tentans and Lumbriculus variegatus as representative species for the assessment of sediment toxicity. Ten chemicals were tested at the U.S. EPA Environmental Research Laboratory-Duluth, always using H. azteca and C. tentans and, occasionally, L. variegatus. The exposures were water-only, flow-through tests with measured chemical concentrations, which were conducted for 10 days in Lake Superior water. Chemicals tested included five metals (copper, lead, zinc, nickel, cadmium) and five pesticides (chlorpyrifos, dieldrin, p,p'-DDDp,p'-DDEp,p'-DDT). The amphipod was quite sensitive to the metals, while the midge often was exceptionally sensitive to the pesticides. No one of the three species was most (or least) sensitive to the toxicants. Toxicity of the contaminants to the three species was compared to the genus mean acute and chronic data found in U.S. EPA Water Quality Criteria (WQC) documents, as well as information from the AQUIRE database. The results of these comparisons indicated that the three species reasonably represent the range of sensitivities of other aquatic test species, and occasionally are among the most sensitive species when compared to others in the WQC database.
#|Piatt, J. The Clean Water Act.  Annual New Mexico Water Conference Albuquerque, NM (USA)  3-4 Nov, 1994.  THE FUTURE OF ALBUQUERQUE AND MIDDLE RIO GRANDE BASIN. PROCEEDINGS OF THE 39TH ANNUAL NEW MEXICO WATER CONFERENCE  VOL. 290, pp. 363-366, 1995.  TECH. REP. NEW MEX. WATER RESOUR. RES. INST.  NEW MEXICO WATER RESOURCES RESEARCH INSTITUTE, NEW MEXICO STATE UNIVERSITY, LAS CRUCES, NM.  The Federal Water Pollution Control Act, commonly called the Clean Water Act (CWA), was adopted as PL 92-500 on 18 October 1972. The CWA was one of the first major "environmental" bills. As established, its objective is: "to restore and maintain the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the Nation's waters." [Section 101.(a)]. It has, an interim goal: "water quality which provides for the protection and propagation of fish, shellfish, and wildlife and provides for recreation in and on the water..." [Section 101.(a)(2)].  It should be noted that Congress established as the Act's ultimate goal: "... the discharge of pollutants into the navigable waters be eliminated..." [Section 101.(a)(1), emphasis added]. The Act set out to meet this lofty objective and goal through the development and implementation of controls on the point source discharges and the nonpoint source release of pollutants. In keeping with the intent of this conference to look forward, let me focus on only a few "upcoming attractions." In 1987, section 303(d) of the CWA, which deals with water quality limited waters, was changed significantly as were the implementing requirements in 40 CFR 130. The State, under this mandate, is required to: Identify those waters where the imposition of the routine effluent requirements in Section 301 are inadequate to guarantee the attainment of water quality standards; Develop a priority ranking of these waters; Develop a Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL) for those pollutants causing standards violations. The TMDLs which must be developed are developed by partitioning the total pollutant load which could be allowed, while still meeting the state's standards, between: natural or background contributions; nonpoint source contributions; point source contributions; and the statutory "margin of safety." In practice this means that point source contributions are limited to that amount which is left after we account for natural, nonpoint source and the margin of safety.
#|Pinder, L C V; Marker, A F H; Mann, R H K; Bass, J A B; Cop,p G H.  The River Great Ouse, a highly eutrophic, slow-flowing, regulated, lowland river in eastern England. Regulated Rivers Research & Management  13 (3):p203-218 1997.  In this paper we aim to provide a brief historical perspective and account of prevailing conditions in the River Great Ouse as background to detailed research, carried out by the Institute of Freshwater Ecology and the Freshwater Biological Association since 1989. In medieval times the Great Ouse supported a great abundance and diversity of fish and until well into the present century was regarded as one of the premier mixed cyprinid fisheries of England. More recently, the fishery has declined substantially and is now heavily dominated by small roach while some other formerly abundant species, notably common bream, have declined markedly. There are few quantitative long-term data available to establish the time period over which this decline occurred but there is a common perception that it was accelerated during the 1970s; a period of extensive engineering works that included the restoration of the previously derelict navigation system up to Bedford. Backwaters that are subject to less disturbance than the main river channels generally support a more diverse and abundant fauna, suggesting that physical conditions, rather than water quality, are primarily responsible for restricting biological diversity and productivity in the main river. Subsequent research, reported in the series of papers that follow, has therefore focused on the extent to which physical and biotic conditions in the modern river are suited to the needs of larval and juvenile cyprinids.
#|Pitt, R. ; Lalor, M. ; Adrian, D. D. ; Field, R. ; Barbe, D.  Investigation of Inappropriate Pollutant Entries into Storm Drainage Systems: A User's Guide.  Louisiana State Univ., Baton Rouge. Dept. of Civil Engineering.; New Orleans Univ., LA. Dept. of Civil Engineering.; Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH. Risk Reduction Engineering Lab.  Report No.: EPA/600/R-92/238.  Jan 93, 98p. See also PB84-185552.  Order this product from NTIS by: phone at 1-800-553-NTIS (U.S. customers); (703)605-6000 (other countries); fax at (703)321-8547; and email at orders@ntis.fedworld.gov. Contract No.: EPA-68-C9-0033. The User's Guide is the result of a series of EPA sponsored research projects to develop a procedure to investigate non-stormwater entries into storm drainage systems. A number of past projects have found that dry-weather flows discharging from storm drainage systems can contribute significant pollutant loadings to receiving waters. If these loadings are ignored (by only considering wet-weather stormwater runoff, for example), little improvement in receiving water conditions may occur with many stormwater control programs. These dry-weather flows may originate from many sources, the most important sources may include sanitary wastewater or industrial and commercial pollutant entries, failing septic tank systems, and vehicle maintenance activities. After the outfalls are identified that are affected by polluted dry-weather flows, additional survey activities are needed to locate and correct the non-stormwater entries into the storm drainage systems. The User's Guide contains information to allow the design and conduct of local investigations to identify the types and to estimate the magnitudes of these non-stormwater entries.
#|Playle R. Janes N. Hollis L. Horn D.  Modelling metal interactions at fish gills: Silver and nickel.  Twenty-first Annual Aquatic Toxicity Workshop, Sarnia, Ontario, Canada, October 3-5, 1994. Canadian Technical Report of Fisheries & Aquatic Sciences 0(2050). 1995. 75.
#|Pocernich, M ; Litke, D W.  Nutrient concentrations in wastewater treatment plant effluents, South Platte River Basin.  WATER RESOURCES BULLETIN vol. 33, no. 1, pp. 205-214, 1997.  Accurate data about nutrient concentrations in wastewater treatment plant effluents are needed for river basin water-quality studies. As part of the U.S. Geological Survey's National Water-Quality Assessment Program in the South Platte River Basin, nutrient data were requested from 31 wastewater-treatment plants located in the basin.  This article describes the types of nutrient data available from the plants, examines the variability of effluent nutrient concentrations, and discusses methods for estimation of nutrient concentrations where data are lacking. Ammonia was monitored at 88 percent of the plants, nitrite plus nitrate was monitored at 40 percent of the plants, and organic nitrogen and phosphorus were monitored at less than 25 percent of the plants. Median total nitrogen concentrations and median total phosphorus concentrations were small compared to typical literature estimates for wastewater-treatment plants with secondary treatment.  Nutrient concentrations in effluent from wastewater-treatment plants varied widely between and within plants. For example, ammonia concentrations varied as much as 5 mg/L during a day, as much as 10 mg/L from day to day, and as much as 30 mg/L from summer to winter within a plant. In the South Platte River Basin, estimates of median annual ammonia and nitrite plus nitrate concentrations can be improved based on plant processes and nitrite plus nitrate and organic nitrogen concentrations can be estimated based on ammonia concentrations. However, to avoid large estimation errors, more complete nutrient data from wastewater-treatment plants are needed for integration into river basin water quality studies. The paucity of data hinders attempts to evaluate the relative importance of point source and nonpoint source nutrient loadings to rivers.
#|Poff NL. Allan JD. FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATION OF STREAM FISH ASSEMBLAGES IN RELATION TO HYDROLOGICAL VARIABILITY [Review].  Ecology. 76(2):606-627, 1995 Mar.  Stream fish assemblage data for 34 sites in Wisconsin and Minnesota were obtained from archived sources and were used in conjunction with long-term hydrological data to test the hypothesis that functional organization of Ash communities is related to hydrological variability. For each of the 106 species present in the data set, six categories of species traits were derived to describe habitat, trophic, morphological, and tolerance characteristics. A hierarchical clustering routine was used to identify two functionally similar groups of assemblages defined in terms of species presence/absence, Hydrological factors describing streamflow variability and predictability, as well as frequency and predictability of high flow and low flow extremes, were derived for each of the 34 sites and employed to explain differences among the functionally defined groups. Canonical discriminant analysis revealed that the hydrological data could clearly separate the two ecologically defined groups of assemblages, which were associated with either hydrologically variable streams (high coefficient of variation of daily flows, moderate frequency of spates) or hydrologically stable streams (high predictability of daily flows, stable baseflow conditions). Discriminant functions based on hydrological information classified the 34 fish assemblages into the correct ecological group with 85% accuracy. Assemblages from hydrologically variable sites had generalized feeding strategies, were associated with silt and general substrata, were characterized by slow-velocity species with headwater affinities, and were tolerant to silt. Proportions of species traits present at the 34 sites were regressed against an index of hydrological stability derived from a principal components analysis to test the hypothesis that functional organization of assemblages varied across a gradient of hydrological stability. Results were complementary with the discriminant analysis. Findings were in general agreement with theoretical predictions that variable habitats should support resource generalists while stable habitats should be characterized by a higher proportion of specialist species. Several species of fish were identified as indicative of the variable-stable hydrological gradient among stream sites, A taxonomic analysis showed strong geographic patterns in species composition of the 34 assemblages. However, zoogeographic constraints did not explain the observed relationship between stream hydrology and functional organization of fish assemblages, The strong hydrological-assemblage relations found in the 34 midwestern sites suggest that hydrological factors are significant environmental variables influencing fish assemblage structure, and that hydrological alterations induced by climate change (or other anthropogenic disturbances) could modify stream fish assemblage structure in this region.
#|Polls, Irwin. How people in the regulated community view biological integrity. Journal of the North American Benthological Society  13 (4):p 598-604. 1994.
#|Porter, S. D., White, K. D., & Clark, J. R.  1995.  Water-Quality Assessment of the Kentucky River Basin, Kentucky.  USGS Water-Resour Investig Report 94-4134, 196p. Spatial and temporal trends in heavy metal concentrations were profiled in Kentucky River Basin water and sediment during 1987-90. Measurements of potentially toxic metals in sediment were greatest in urban and industrial areas. Elevated metal levels were also detected in streambed sediments in a region underlain by Devonian shale bedrock. Cadmium, chromium, mercury, copper, and silver concentrations were elevated in sediments downstream from wastewater treatment plant outfalls. Metal levels in water samples were correlated with stream discharge and suspended sediment concentrations. EPA or state water quality criteria were exceeded at one or more monitoring stations for Cd, Cr, Cu, nickel, silver, zinc, and manganese.
#|Poulet, F. M., Wolfe, M. J., & Spitsbergen, J. M. (1994). Naturally occurring orocutaneous papillomas and carcinomas of brown bullheads (Ictalurus nebulosus) in New York state.  VET. PATHOL., vol. 31, no. 1, pp. 8-18. Ninety-four brown bullheads (Ictalurus nebulosus) with spontaneous orocutaneous neoplasms (papillomas and carcinomas) were studied grossly and by light microscopy. Of these 94 fish, 71 were selected from 505 fish examined macroscopically during field surveys and 23 were selected from those submitted for diagnostic study. Fish with neoplasms came from 17 locations throughout New York State: Buffalo River, Canaan Lake, Cazenovia Lake, Delta Lake, Fort Pond, Greenwood Lake, Hudson River, Lake George, Lake Tiorati, Lincoln Hall Pond, Lincoln Pond, Oneida Lake, Onondaga Lake, Rutland Pond, Salmon River, Silver Stream Reservoir, and Swan Lake. The prevalence varied from 0 to 100%. Multiple neoplasms were more common (84/94, 89%) than solitary ones (10/94, 11%). In order of decreasing frequency, neoplasms arose on the head, especially the ventral aspect, the lower dental plate, the upper dental plate, the trunk, the barbels, the fins, the tongue, and the tail. Of the 38/94 brown bullheads (40%) with tumors in both upper and lower lips and dental plates, 24/38 (63%) had the tumors in opposition. Macroscopically, soft, pink or yellowish papillary masses protruded above the normal epithelial surfaces. Histologically, cutaneous and oral neoplasms originated from the morphologically similar Malpighian epithelial cells of the surface epithelia and from the outer cells of the enamel organ. Based on histopathologic criteria, cutaneous and oral neoplasms were considered the same disease in different anatomic locations. No apparent difference in biologic behavior was noted between cutaneous and oral neoplasms. The lesions apparently progressed from benign papilloma to locally invasive carcinoma (28/94, 30%). Neoplastic emboli were seen in one case, and no metastases were detected. There was no statistically significant difference between the susceptibility of males (20/57, 35%) and females (6/26, 23%) to carcinomas. An apparent correlation was noted between a higher frequency of malignant tumors and longer body size (3/13 fish [23%] <30 cm, 17/54 fish [31%] 30-34 cm, and 7/18 fish [39%] >34 cm).
#|Pradhan, A A ; Levine, A D.  Microbial biosorption of copper and lead from aqueous systems.  SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT vol. 170, no. 3, pp. 209-220, 1995.  Biosorption of metal ions from aqueous systems was evaluated using a culture of acidic soil isolates grown in a completely mixed, aerobic, semi-batch culture reactor. The laboratory scale system was used to test single and bimetallic solutions of copper and lead with sulfates, chlorides, or nitrates. To elucidate the key factors influencing biosorption and to characterize metal uptake by cellular and extra cellular components of the microbial system, a dialysis testing procedure was developed. A direct contact technique was used to determine the rate of metal sorption on cellular surfaces. The effectiveness of biosorption was influenced by pH, initial metal concentrations, and anionic composition. Respirometric tests were carried out to identify potential inhibitory effects of metal accumulation on microbial oxygen uptake rates.
#|Pratt, C J.  A review of source control of urban stormwater runoff.  J. INST. WATER ENVIRON. MANAGE. vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 132-139, 1995.  Stormwater management, based upon techniques located at or close to where rain falls, is reviewed and two categories (at the ground surface and below-ground) are illustrated. The management of storm-water by these source control techniques requires both quantity and quality design criteria to be employed, and for maintenance provision to be clearly in-built. Source control techniques have been studied in projects since the 1980s, and it is suggested that the present emphasis upon sustainable development should encourage their incorporation within environmental/catchment management strategies to assist in addressing a number of identified problems from the uncontrolled discharges of stormwater.
#|Pratt, J. R., & Rosenberger, J. L.  (1993).  Community change and ecosystem functional complexity: A microcosm study of copper toxicity.  ASTM Special Technical Publication n 1216.  p 88-102. Toxic chemicals can alter ecosystem structure and ecological processes. The functional redundancy of systems - an assumption that biotic communities have several members that perform similar functions - is used to explain how communities maintain processes such as nutrient cycles and production-respiration patterns under stress. We tested community functional redundancy by analyzing the uncoupling of multispecies processes. We used continuously collected pH values in replicate laboratory microcosms to compare changes in the pH spectrum (an analog of diurnal net primary production and respiration) to changes in community structure (species richness, composition, standing crop). Spectral analyses identified the repeating frequencies in continuous pH records and showed that severe uncoupling of diurnal production and respiration patterns in microcosms treated with copper 9.9-205 ug Cu/L) occurred at concentrations near or below numerical water quality criteria (ca. 20 ug Cu/L). Changes in the pH spectrum were coincident with the loss of species from the microcosms. Changes in spectral density and community structure were indicative of adverse ecological effects, and these changes occurred at lower concentrations than detectable changes in nutrient cycles and standing crop biomass (protein, chlorophyll). Results of these experiments suggest that functional redundancy in communities does not extend to continuous measures of community metabolism. As such, the concept of functional redundancy is questioned: the failure to detect changes in processes belies alterations in process dynamics. The concept of functional redundancy is probably a result of insufficient statistical power rather an inherent ecosystem property.
#|Pratt, J. R., Bowers, N. J., Balkczon, J. M., Editors: Landis, W. G., Hughes, J. S., & Lewis, M. A.  (1993).  A microcosm using naturally derived microbial communities: comparative ecotoxicology: Environmental toxicology and risk assessment.  American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM):  Philadelphia.  Presented at the first symposium on environmental risk assessment held in Atlantic City, New Jersey, USA on 14-16 April 1991, p.178-191. Experiments using microcosms (developed from natural microbial communities) cultured on artificial substrata, continuously applied toxicants (including heavy metals, simple organics and pesticides) and complex mixtures (effluents) showed that microcosm variability was sufficiently low to detect adverse effects on species richness, standing crop biomass and measures of ecological function. Experiments assessing heavy-metal toxicity, including that due to effluent mixtures with heavy metals, showed adverse effects at toxicant levels at or below current water quality criteria. For example, copper reduced species richness and biomass levels at 10-20 micro g/litre in microcosms, and zinc reduced chlorophyll biomass at <10 micro g. Microcosm responses to toxicants differed both quantitatively and qualitatively from the responses of standard test species, showing that compensatory mechanisms in complex assemblages sometimes prevent the expression of toxic effects, especially when degradable toxicants affect communities. Zinc toxicity elevated the rate of microbial phosphate recovery. Low levels of atrazine (<100 micro g) stimulated species richness and standing crop biomass, but oxygen production did not increase. Chlorpyrifos did not affect microcosms even when concn exceeded water quality criteria by 3 orders of magnitude. Trinitrotoluene (TNT) only affected microcosms at >400 micro g, although provisional water quality criteria predicted chronic effects at 40 micro g. Microcosms were sensitive to chlorine in the laboratory (6 micro g) but were insensitive to a nutrient-rich, chlorinated effluent (>400 micro g), which was acutely toxic to daphnids. Reference toxicant experiments showed that effects on naturally derived microcosms are repeatable within and between ecosystems. Differences between microcosm responses and expected toxicity based on standard bioassays are a result of complex interactions including toxicant degradation, the interaction of toxicants and nutrients, and the lack of species sensitive to some toxicants, and these interactions allow microcosms to display a range of ecological responses not predictable from single species tests.
#|Preslan, J. E., Belkhouche, B., Swalm, C. M., Hughes, J. M., Chen, H.-L., Henry, M., Lin, D., Bakeer, R. M., Englande, A. J., Demtchouk, I., Anderson, M. B., Regens, J. L., Means, J. C., Bollinger, J. E., Steinberg, L. J., & et al.  (1997).  Database on water quality of the Mississippi River.  Environmental Progress v 16 n 3, p 145-163. A water quality GIS/database has been developed for the Mississippi River within the state of Louisiana. Existing ambient water quality data (1.3 million records) and records of river stage and discharge for the river and its tributaries have been acquired from government agencies, industry, and research projects. Data were initially reviewed to validate information quality. They have been incorporated into an Oracle database created to provide rapid data searches and retrieval of information through a menu-format user interface. Descriptive information about sample collection and analysis methods are included, as well as government advisory criteria which provide ecological and human health perspectives to assist in data interpretation. GIS software utilizes electronic base maps which have been developed in Arc/Info and ArcView data formats to generate geographic displays and graphical representations of the data. Examples of the capabilities of the system are included for data on mercury, phosphates, and nitrates. The temporal trends in the concentrations of representative water quality parameters are tabulated for a selected segment of the river.
#|Proposed Great Lakes rules seen as economic disaster.  IND. LAUNDERER  VOL. 44, NO. 10, pp. 81-84, 1993.  Rules proposed by EPA to improve the Great Lakes' water quality are drawing fire from business interests in the region (including IIL), which have coalesced in hope that the rules will be greatly modified before they're published in final form, possibly as early as year-end. The proposed guidance specifies numeric criteria for selected pollutants to protect aquatic life, wildlife,and human health within the Great Lakes system. It stipulates methodologies to derive numeric criteria for pollutants discharged to these waters. The guidance also contains implementation procedures to translate proposed ambient water quality criteria into enforceable controls on discharges. Another provision, which creates an antidegradation policy for the system, has attracted heavy criticism. It calls for placing numeric limits in permits based on a facility's existing discharge quality.
#|Proposed Rule Would Alter Requirements on NPDES Permit Applications for POTWS.  Environ Report-BNA  v26, n32, p1413(115), Dec 15, 95.  EPA has proposed reforming the requirements for permit applications for publicly owned treatment works (POTWs) and other domestic sewage treatment facilities. The applications relating to wastewater discharge and treatment at POTWs and to generation, treatment, and disposal of sewage sludge at POTWs and other domestic sewage treatment plants would be affected. The proposed revision would reduce nationwide reporting burdens by about 10% by consolidating application requirements and would require monitoring for toxics and whole effluent toxicity. This would provide EPA with information needed to evaluate permit applications. Another revision would require plants to analyze sludge and provide data on 10 metals, nitrogen, and phosphorus. The complete text of the EPA proposal is provided.
#|Public Health Assessment for Carson River Mercury Site, Moundhouse, Lyon County, Nevada, CERCLIS No. NVD980813646, September 30, 1993. Preliminary rept. Oak Ridge National Lab., TN.  Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, Atlanta, GA. 30 Sep 93. 72p. The Carson River Mercury Site (CRMS), a National Priorities List (NPL) site, is that part of the Carson River Basin surrounding an approximately 50-mile stretch of the Carson River, from Carson City, Nevada, through the Lahontan Reservoir, Carson Lake and Stillwater Wildlife Refuge. The major contaminant of concern at this 500 square mile site is mercury. The source of the mercury is hundreds of waste piles generated during the late 1800's as a result of the amalgamation process used to separate gold and silver from ore. Completed exposure pathways include ingestion of fish (especially predatorial fish such as walleye and white bass), waterfowl (primarily bottom feeders, such as the shoveler duck); ingestion, inhalation, and direct contact with soil, sediment, tailings piles, and surface water. Potential exposure pathways include ingestion of crops irrigated by contaminated surface water or grown in contaminated soil, ingestion, inhalation and dermal contact with tailings piles and contaminated soils/sediments in unknown locations by residents and workers, ingestion and dermal contact with ground water in well systems, and ingestion of commercially caught carp and blackfish.
#|Pulido L L, Bisana B B, Hata T, Imamura Y, Ishihara S, & Kajimoto T.  1997.  Metal distribution in the Laguna lake water system and adsorption of some metals by carbonized wood powder.  Wood Research,  0 (84): 54-61. The metal distribution in the Laguna lake water system was assessed using water samples taken from the surface, middle and bottom portions of the lake at five designated sampling points. Trial purification of the wastewater was conducted using raw and carbonized wood powder from wood wastes of Acacia mangium. Beneficial and dangerously toxic metals were present in all the water samples. Sodium (Na) was the most dominant alkali metal followed by potassium (K), magnesium (Mg) and calcium (Ca). Toxic metals such as arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), cobalt (Co), chromium (Cr), copper (Co), lead (Pb), iron (Fe), mercury (Hg), zinc (Zn), etc., were found but each concentration was below the water quality criteria set by the National Pollution Control Commission of the Philippines. Adsorption tests showed that wood waste from Acacia mangium could be a potential purification material in treating Laguna take water samples, and especially raw and carbonized wood powder of this species could be used as material in adsorbing heavy metals like Zn and Cu.
#|Purcell, T W ; Peters, J J. Sources of silver in the environment.  ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY vol. 17, no. 4, pp. 539-546, 1998.  Silver is a naturally occurring metal that is extensively utilized in the photographic and imaging industry, as well as in electronics and electrical applications and other lesser uses. It is known to be discharged to the environment from its industrial applications, and this leads to the possibility for exposure to aquatic and terrestrial organisms. Because of great differences in toxicity between silver compounds, the form in which silver enters the environment is important. While the ionic form of silver has been shown to be toxic to a variety of aquatic organisms, forms of silver other than ionic, or free, silver are significantly less toxic. Ionic silver is known to convert to the more innocuous forms as it reacts rapidly with natural chemical ligands in sewer systems, sewage treatment facilities, and the environment. This paper reviews information on the industries that use silver, the quantities they employ, and the forms and amounts of silver that may be discharged from each into the environment.
#|Qu'Appelle River survey data report, 1990-9.  Saskatchewan. Municipal Branch, Regina (Canada).  1994.  134p.  In 1989, an examination was begun of the practicality of bio-effects monitoring as a means of evaluating the impacts of effluent on the receiving environment.  In early 1990, it was decided to conduct a pilot study on the Qu'Appelle River to develop protocols for bio-effects monitoring.  This report summarizes the data collected on Wascana Creek in preparation for the development of the protocols. It provides results on surface velocity, mean daily discharge, water quality, bacteria, pheriphyton and chlorophyll a, sediments, and zoobenthos.
#|Quinn, Nigel W.T.  Real-Time Management of Contaminated Agricultural Drainage Flows to Meet Water Quality Objectives.  American Water Resources Association:  Proceedings of the Symposium on Effluent Use Management Tucson, AZ.  August 29-September 2, 1993, p 183-192.  Irrigated land that is subjected to seasonally high groundwater levels in the Grasslands Basin of California's San Joaquin Valley produces drainage with elevated concentrations of dissolved selenium and boron. This drainage is discharged into the San Joaquin River and can cause violations of the instream water quality objectives set by the State Water Resources Control Board.  To avoid these violations, strategies are being investigated by water districts to reduce irrigation deep percolation, control seasonally high groundwater levels, and manage drainage return flows. Continuous monitoring of flow and water quality in both drainage water and in the San Joaquin River can help identify periods during which increased drainage discharges could be assimilated without exceeding river limits for selenium, boron, and total dissolved solids.  Likewise, with the construction of continuously recording flow and water quality monitoring stations, existing computer-based simulation models can be used to assist water districts in timing drainage-discharges to coincide with scheduled reservoir releases for fish, wildlife and recreation. This paper describes a project to develop a continuously operating (real time) water quality monitoring and drainage management system.
#|Rabeni,-C.F.; Sowa,-S.P. Integrating biological realism into habitat restoration and conservation strategies for small streams. Workshop on the Science and Management for Habitat Conservation and Restoration Strategies (HabCARES) in the Great Lakes, Kempenfelt, Barrie, ON (Canada) 14-18 Nov 1994.  CAN.-J.-FISH.-AQUAT.-SCI. 1996  vol. 53, no. supplement 1, pp. 252-259.  Successful habitat conservation or restoration must be biologically based, which requires an understanding of habitat variables most influencing fish; the relative influence of each habitat variable and the spatial scale over which each operates. Determining necessary habitat conditions requires examination from several perspectives, including observation of individual fish during all seasons and population analysis over a range of spatial scales. There is a definite spatial hierarchy of influences that must be addressed to separate those habitat conditions responsible for presence and abundance from those habitat conditions responsible for within-stream distribution. A case study of habitat factors influencing smallmouth bass (Micropterus dolomieu) in Missouri streams indicates that examination at the smallest spatial scales allows one to determine the influence of habitat conditions (depths, velocities, cover factors) relating mainly to the fish's distribution in a stream reach. Evaluation of populations at the stream-system level allows an understanding of how individual fish preferences relate to amounts of habitat as determined by geomorphic and fluvial dynamic forces and how this influences standing stocks throughout a stream system. Evaluation at the ecoregion level shows the overriding influence of physiographic variables on both the presence and abundance of fish across stream systems, as well as the importance of land use.
#|Radian Corp., Herndon, VA.  Development Document for the Proposed Effluent Limitations Guidelines and Standards for the Metal Products and Machinery Phase 1 Point Source Category.  Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Office of Water.  Contract Number: Contract EPA-68-C4-002.  NTIS/PB95-227534, 519p. Pursuant to the Clean Water Act, EPA is proposing effluent limitations guidelines and standards for the Metal Products and Machinery (MP&M) Phase I Point Source Category. The document and the administrative record for this rulemaking provide the technical basis for these effluent limitations guidelines for new and existing direct dischargers, and pretreatment standards for new and existing indirect dischargers. Direct dischargers are sites that discharge wastewater to a surface water.  Indirect discharger are sites that discharge wastewater to a publicly-owned treatment works (POTW).
#|Ragas, A. M. J.; Haans, J. L. M.; Leuven, R. S. E. W.  Selecting Water Quality Models for Discharge Permitting.  Eur Water Pollut Control  v7, n5, p59(9), Sep 97.  Many different water-quality models are available for discharge permitting, which differ in their underlying assumptions, in the system modeled, and in discharge characteristics. Therefore, model selection may significantly influence the setting of emission-limit values. A theoretical framework is developed for model selection, which is based on an analysis of environmental quality objectives and model applications in the US and the UK. A total of 11 UK and US water-quality model are compared in an effort to identify distinguishing features than may be important in model selection. Comparative data are tabulated for all models in terms of model type, system type, parameter variability, compartment, predicted variable, polluting agent, process, site-specific parameter, spatial dimension, discharge type, calibration and validation, uncertainty estimate, data requirement, calculation direction, and user-friendliness. Model selection is shown to depend on the applicable environmental quality objectives, system and discharge characteristics, availability of the data, uncertainty, and personal preferences of the model user.
#|Rajar, R. U., Cetina, M., & Sirca, A.  1997.  Hydrodynamic and Water Quality Modelling: Case Studies.  Ecol Model v101, n2-3, p209(20). Several different case studies are presented of water quality modeling systems. The first study concerns the 3-D modeling of circulation, and nutrient transport and dispersion in an alpine lake. The second study deals with 2-D modeling of mercury cycling in Trieste Bay, Northern Adriatic. In this second case study, most of the primary biochemical processes are simulated, including sedimentation, methylation, and demethylation. The final case study involves techniques for the 3-D long-term simulation of radioactive pollutant dispersion in the Japan sea. Thermohaline forcing phenomena are considered the primary forcing factors in this final case study. These analyses were conducted using the previously descried LMT2D and LMT3D hydrrodynamic and mass-transport models.
#|Rakocinski, C F ; Milligan, M R ; Heard, R W ; Deardorff, T L. Comparative evaluation of macrobenthic assemblages from the Sulphur River Arkansas in relation to pulp mill effluent.  ENVIRONMENTAL FATE AND EFFECTS OF PULP AND PAPER MILL EFFLUENTS. Servos, M R ; Munkittrick, K R ; Carey, J H ; van der Kraak, G J  (eds ).  pp. 533-547, 1996.  International Conference on Environmental Fate and Effects of Bleached Pulp Mill Effluents.  Vancouver, British Columbia (Canada), Nov 6-10.  ST. LUCIE PRESS: DELRAY BEACH, FL. In October 1992 during low-flow conditions, we conducted an evaluation of spatial variation in macrobenthic assemblages from the lower Sulphur River system (Texas and Arkansas border) in relation to bleached kraft mill effluent (BKME). We adopted a multifaceted approach using detailed taxonomic data and various quantitative methods. A classification analysis based on assemblage similarity showed a close relationship between the effluent site and a neighboring site located 2.3 river miles (3.7 km) downstream of the effluent. Although the farthest upstream and downstream sites were separated by 14.0 river miles (22.5 km) as well as by intrinsic habitat differences, they were closely linked in the classification analysis. Complementary variation in relative abundances of three taxonomic core groups (tubificids, chironomids, and ceratopogonids) helped explain the classification analysis. Furthermore, the macrobenthic composition of the outfall canal resembled that of neighboring river sites. High total densities of macrobenthic organisms greater than 3400 m super(-2) occurred at both the effluent site and the neighboring downstream site. Parallel among-site variation in tubificid abundances implied that differences in this taxonomic group might be driving among-site variation in total densities. The predominant macrobenthic pattern suggested organic enrichment as a possible chronic effect of BKME on macrobenthic assemblages. Nonetheless, a relatively high species richness and typical taxonomic diversity occurred at the effluent site. This study illustrates the utility of taking a whole-community approach using detailed taxonomic data to identify chronic macrobenthic effects of pulp mill effluents.
#|Ramjeawon, T.; Baguant, J. Evaluation of critical BOD loadings from Mauritian sugar factories to streams and standards setting.  Journal of Environmental Management  vol. 45 (2):  p.163-176, 1995.  Environmental standards should be set logically and scientifically. The sugar industry in Mauritius has traditionally been a major consumer of water and source of organic pollution in surface water. Public pressure and the need to protect water resources after industrial expansion during the past decade forced the Mauritian authorities to adopt discharge standards to all water sinks. The sugar industry considered these standards to be based on non-scientific and non-economic rationales, and they lost credibility; the resulting complacency could impede future efforts to enforce environmental regulations. Island-wide research was begun to ascertain and quantify more exactly the environmental impact of sugar-industry wastewaters before the imposition of rigid standards. Models provide theability to develop, in the short term, a credible and defensible water quality management programme. Both the complexity and theuncertainty in input parameters must be considered in the modelling exercise; focusing only on one of these will not optimize the system. The loading concept, based on simple water quality models, produces useful values for managing the individual sources of pollutants in bodies of water in developing countries like Mauritius, where baseline data are rare. This paper discusses the results obtained using a simple water quality model which yields the critical BOD load that can be discharged into Mauritian rivers while maintaining the dissolved oxygen content above a esirable level. The proposed Mauritian C.O.D. standard of 30 mg/litre is considered unjustifiable, and it is recommended that different standards be set for domestic and industrial wastewaters. The European Wastewater Directive is proposing a C.O.D. standard of 125 mg/litre.
#|Randall, D. J. ; Hong, X. ; Thurston, R. V.  Fish Physiology, Toxicology and Water Quality Management.  Proceedings of Biennial International Symposium (3rd).  Held in Nanjing, People's Republic of China on November 3-5, 1992. Montana State Univ., Bozeman. Fisheries Bioassay Lab.; Environmental Research Lab., Athens, GA.  Office of Research and Development. Report No.: EPA/600/R-94/138, Aug 94, 222p.The proceedings includes 20 papers presented in sessions covened over 3 days.  Papers address the regulation of growth hormones in fish, the reproductive effects of anthropogenic chemicals in fish, the effects of pollutants on physiological functions in fish, and the physiological responses of rainbow trout to copper and ammonia. Presentations also covered nonpoint sources and water quality, conversion of municipal wastewater into resources, modeling of toxic chemicals in the Yangtze River, regional water pollution control in rural China, adsorption of organic pollutants on soils and sediments, heavy metal speciation modeling on the Le An River, and uncertainty analysis using the QUAL2E model.
#|Rao,-S.S.; Burnison,-B.K.; Rokosh,-D.A.; Taylor,-C.M. Mutagenicity and toxicity assessment of pulp mill effluent. CHEMOSPHERE 1994  vol. 28, no. 10, pp. 1859-1870.  Data are presented on the mutagenic and toxic properties of both whole and fractionated bleached kraft mill effluent. Mutagenic properties were measured using the Ames test and the SOS Chromotest. Toxic properties were measured using the Microtox and Daphnia magna bioassays. The D. magna bioassays were performed only on four samples, and the information on mutagenicity represent the main emphasis of this study. Various fractionation procedures, including filtration, centrifugation and XAD resin adsorption procedures were employed. Bleached kraft mill effluent (BKME) was found to be mutagenic with the majority of activity associated with polar compounds. Polar material adsorbed by XAD-4 and XAD-8 resins contained a mutagenic potency equivalent to that measured directly in the effluent. Whole effluent samples were non-toxic (Microtox bioassay), but the polar fractions were toxic (Microtox and Daphnia magna bioassays) while particulate associated materials were toxic just to the Microtox bioassay. This paper also comments on the chemical characteristics of mutagenetic materials in these effluent fractions.
#|Rao,-S.S.; Neheli,-T.; Carey,-J.H.; Cairns,-V.W.  Fish hepatic micronuclei as an indication of exposure to genotoxic environmental contaminants. ENVIRON.-TOXICOL.-WATER-QUAL. 1997 vol. 12, no. 3, pp. 217-222.  An In vivo assay protocol for detecting hepatic micronuclei in fish was performed to evaluate whether this genotoxic response could serve as a bioindicator of environmental exposure to genotoxic substances. The incidence of hepatic micronuclei was compared in brown bullheads (Ameiurus nebulosus) with external lesions collected from a contaminated site and fish showing no externally visible pathologies collected from reference sites. Laboratory experiments were performed by exposing hatchery-raised rainbow trout (Onchorhynchus mykiss) to a pulp mill effluent extract (XAD-4-NaOH) with known genotoxic activity. Both bullhead and trout were injected with allyl formate to induce hepatic necrosis and regenerative proliferation of hepatocytes prior to examining the liver tissue for micronuclei. An elevated incidence of hepatic micronuclei was observed in Hamilton Harbour bullheads showing visible lesions relative to the micronucleus incidence in bullheads from reference sites with no external pathologies. Similarly, rainbow trout exposed to pulp mill effluent extracts exhibited an elevated incidence of hepatic micronuclei compared to controls. These results suggest that the hepatic micronucleus assay could serve as a valuable biomonitoring tool for assessing the impacts of genotoxic environmental contaminants on fish.
#|RATCLIFFE HE, SWANSON GM, & FISCHER LJ. (1996). HUMAN EXPOSURE TO MERCURY - A CRITICAL-ASSESSMENT OF THE EVIDENCE OF ADVERSE HEALTH-EFFECTS.  JOURNAL OF TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH, V49, N3, P221-270. The ubiquitous nature of mercury in the environment, its global atmospheric cycling, and its toxicity to humans at levels that are uncomfortably close to exposures experienced by a proportion of the population are some of the current concerns associated with this pollutant. The purpose of this review is to critically evaluate the scientific quality of published reports involving human exposures to mercury and associated health outcomes as an aid in the risk evaluation of this chemical. A comprehensive review of the scientific literature involving human exposures to mercury was performed and each publication evaluated using a defined set of criteria that are considered standards in epidemiologic and toxicologic research. Severe, sometimes fatal, effects of mercury exposure at high levels were primarily reported as case studies. The disasters in Minamata, japan, in the 1950s and in Iraq in 1971-1972 clearly demonstrated neurologic effects associated with ingestion of methylmercury both in adults and in infants exposed in utero. The effects were convincingly associated with methylmercury ingestion, despite limitations of the study design. Several well-conducted studies have investigated the effects of methylmercury at levels below those in the Iraq incident but have not provided clear evidence of an effect. The lower end of the dose-response curve constructed from the iraq data therefore still needs to be confirmed. The studies of mercury exposure in the workplace were mainly of elemental or inorganic mercury, and effects that were observed at relatively low exposure levels were primarily neurologic and renal. Several studies have investigated effects associated with dental amalgam but have been rated as inconclusive because of methodologic deficiencies. In our overall evaluation, 29 of 110 occupational studies and 20 of 54 studies where exposure occurred in the natural environment provided at least suggestive evidence of an exposure-related effect.
#|Raven P; Holmes N T H; Dawson F H; Everard M.  Quality assessment using River Habitat Survey data. Aquatic Conservation  8 (4):p477-499 July-Aug., 1998. A representative sample of habitat features from rivers in the UK and Isle of Man has been generated by River Habitat Survey (RHS) during 1994-1997. This baseline reference provides a sound basis for describing the physical character and assessing the habitat quality of 500 m lengths of river shown on 1:250000 scale maps and classified for water quality purposes. 2. The use of a standard field method, with associated accreditation controls, stratified random sampling strategy and computer database all provide a robust foundation for habitat quality assessment. The outputs have a sound statistical basis and satisfy the practical needs of river management as well as providing policy-makers with relevant information. 3. Within the UK, sites of national, regional, or local importance for wildlife habitat quality can be determined, using criteria based on the presence of features of known conservation interest. The occurrence, individually, of rare features, or rare combinations of representative features, can also be used to identify sites of particular regional or local importance for their river habitat quality. 4. A habitat quality assessment (HQA) scoring system, based on features considered to be of wildlife importance can be used to compare sites surveyed by the RHS method. However, for meaningful results this comparison must involve the same river type. 5. For completeness, the HQA scores for a given river type can be calibrated using known top quality sites. For individual sites, HQA scores should be used in conjunction with a measure of artificial modification to the channel. A simple Habitat Modification Score (HMS) system can be applied to RHS data for this purpose. 6. RHS can be further developed to define and predict the likely distribution of sites which satisfy the known habitat requirements of certain aquatic and riparian species. It can also provide the basis for better understanding of the spatial relationships between geomorphological processes and habitat type.
#|Ravichandran,-S.; Ramanibai,-R.; Pundarikanthan,-N.V.  Ecoregions for describing water quality patterns in Tamiraparani basin, South India.  J-hydrol. Amsterdam : Elsevier Science B.V. Apr 15, 1996. v. 178 (1/4) p. 257-276.  A regional approach which was developed for managing environmental resources, known as an 'ecoregional concept', was found useful for describing spatial water-quality patterns. Ecoregions, when defined within the framework of a river basin concept, provided a satisfactory explanation of water-quality variations occurring in the Tamiraparani basin, South India. The methodology consists of principal component analysis (PCA) of 23 features of the geological, geomorphological, basin morphometry and land-use aspects of the Tamiraparani basin defined in terms of 63 micro-basins. The PCA scores calculated on five components were used to cluster the micro-basins into groups based on a similarity measure. The groups identified in the analysis were traced on the drainage map to delineate nine ecoregions. A water-quality survey of the identified ecoregions was carried out. The pH, EC, DO, TDS, major ions and nutrients were estimated in 278 water samples. A PCA of the water-quality data revealed that three processes appear to be particularly important for water quality in this basin: the geological origin of ionic richness variables, nutrient leaching from agricultural operations, and the carbonate system. The spatial ability of ecoregions to account for regional variations in water quality was compared using two existing classification methods (hydrological and limnological). Water samples were grouped in terms of ecoregional, hydrological and limnological classifications, based on their location in the basin. Visual examination of the box plots of water-quality variables showed that ecoregions have less within-region variation with statistically significant differences between the group means than either.
#|Reash, R. J., Loeffelman, P. H., Hollback, J. E., Tiell, J., & Martin, G.  1998.  Now You can Choose: Treat Mercury in Water at $10 Million Per Pound.  Environ Regul Permit v7, n3, p29(10). The NPDES permits issued to all of the Great Lakes States will change substantially under the EPA's recently published mercury water quality criteria for human health and wildlife, which is set at approximately one part per trillion. These new permit limits will be enforceable under the EPA's new method detection limit. Researchers for the Ohio EPA conducted a marginal cost/benefit analysis of its treatment capabilities under the new federal regulations. Findings from this research led planners to develop a variance coupled with pollution minimization targets. The advantages offered by this type of approach are discussed. This is the approach that the US EPA should adopt during implementation of its National Permitting Strategy for Mercury.
#|Reda A.L.L., & Beck M.B. (1997). Ranking strategies for stormwater management under uncertainty: Sensitivity analysis.  Water Science and Technology;  36/5 (357-371) WATER SCI. TECHNOL. The disadvantageous consequences of stormwater perturbations of receiving water quality in urban environments can be attenuated by exercising control at various locations across the sewer network, wastewater treatment plant, and the stream itself. As part of a long-standing programme of research on developing an integrated approach to the management and real-time control of water quality in river basins, the paper examines the sensitivity of the associated strategies to model uncertainty. Specifically, results are presented for a case study based on a 10km stretch of the River Cam as it passes through the city of Cambridge in eastern England. The options for control are restricted to design and operational features of the wastewater treatment facility. Assessment is according to maximum and cumulative values of mass flows of ammonium-N and biochemical oxygen demand, together with the duration of dissolved oxygen concentration below 4.0 gm-3, at the downstream boundary of the system. A straightforward analysis of the sensitivity of these criteria to changes in the parameterisation of a model for receiving water quality shows that the ranking of strategies is robust in the face of model uncertainty. Minor differences in ranking occur as a function of whether judgement is based on ammonium-N or the other two attributes of water quality and whether attention is focused on the treatment plant in isolation or performance across the system as a whole. However, such conclusions must be qualified by noting that our analysis has been limited in its scope and elementary in its treatment of uncertainty.
#|Reed-Judkins D K, Farris J L, Cherry D S, Heath A G, & Cairns J Jr.  Functional responses in Leptoxis praerosa to increasing metal concentration and exposure duration.  Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 16 (8). 1997.  1666-1676. The protectiveness of USEPA ambient water quality criteria for copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn) was tested using the snail Leptoxis praerosa in short- and long-term artificial stream tests. Acute criteria were tested in 96-h survival tests. Chronic criteria were tested by comparing cellulolytic enzyme activity impairment, bioconcentration, and survival in 14-, 20-, 30-, and 114-d exposures. Significant Cu bioconcentration occurred within 40 d at the chronic Cu criteria concentration, followed by significant cellulolytic enzyme activity impairment within 54 d. Significant bioconcentration and enzyme activity impairment occurred within 40 and 54 d, respectively, at the chronic Zn criteria concentration, but survival was much higher than in Cu-exposed snails. Approximate additive effects were seen in combination treatments of Cu and Zn. Similar patterns of effects were seen from both increased exposure duration and concentration. This research concluded that criteria based on abbreviated chronic tests may be underprotective for some sensitive taxa when exposures are prolonged.
#|Rees, Adrian; White, Keith N.  Impact of Combined Sewer Overflows on the Water Quality of an Urban Watercourse.  Regul Rivers: Res Manag. v8, n1-2, p83(12), May 93.  The effects of episodic discharges from combined sewer overflows on the Manchester, UK, Ship Canal were investigated. Data on BOD, temperature, DO, suspended solids, pH, conductivity, and ammonia, phosphate, nitrate, and nitrogen dioxide anions were collected over a 12-month period in 1989- 90. The pollutant flux was observed to increased after each overflow event in the tributaries feeding the canal. High flows appeared to cause deterioration of the water quality because of pollutant releases from resuspended sediments. Results suggested that the main impact of combined sewer overflows on water quality in the canal may be indirect, via resuspension of sewage-derived sediments. Short-term mitigative measures should involve increasing the oxygen sink of the sediments and the water column, especially during the low-flow summer period.
#|REID R A, DURANCE T D, WALKER D C, & REID P.  STRUCTURAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGES IN THE MUSCLE OF CHUM SALMON ONCORHYNCHUS-KETA DURING SPAWNING MIGRATION.  FOOD RES INT,  26 (1). 1993.  1-9. The white muscle of migrating chum salmon (Oncorhynchus keta) becomes increasingly soft and watery as the fish matures and progresses towards its spawning grounds. Flesh colour, measured by HunterLab parameters .alpha. and .alpha./L, was a better indicator of maturity grade than muscle fat, protein or moisture. In the transition from grade 1, silver-bright, to grade 4, spawning, chum muscle protein decreased from 17.9% to 15.8%, fat decreased from 4.9% to 1.0% and moisture increased from 74.2% to 79.5%. Compositional changes and concurrent textural degradation of the flesh may be attributed to the physical stress of migration, starvation, and hormonal changes during the development of the reproductive system. The structural basis for loss of firm texture was investigated with light and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) by comparing the immature (silver-bright) and mature (spawning) salmon. Light micrographs revealed an apparent loss in myofibrillar material within muscle cells as the salmon matured. With Tem, local or focal areas of degeneration were visible in both the spawning and silver-bright fish, but changes were more severe in the mature fish. Given a series of micrographs of muscle, judges could distinguish between the two groups using a scoring system based on defined criteria of myofibril 'splitting', 'smearing', 'thinning', and 'inter-myofibril spaces'.
#|Reinert, R.E.; Knuth, B.A.; Kamrin, M.A.; Stober, Q.J. A review of the basic principles and assumptions used to issue fish consumption advisories.  MULTIDIMENSIONAL APPROACHES TO RESERVOIR FISHERIES MANAGEMENT.  Miranda, L.E.; DeVries, D.R. (eds.)  AM. FISH. SOC. SYMP.  vol. 16  pp. 98-106  (1996).  National Reservoir Fisheries Symp. , Chattanooga, TN (USA), 1995 Jun 12-14.  AFS. BETHESDA, MD.  Contaminants become concentrated in fish directly from water and through the aquatic food chain. Because fish live in an environment that is a sink for pollutants, they accumulate more contaminants than do terrestrial animals. In the past several years, fish consumption advisories issued by states have grown in number and type this is a measure of the increased concern about the possible public health effects of contaminants in sport fish. These advisories have caused a great deal of concern among the general public and especially among anglers. One of the most controversial aspects is the accuracy of the relatively new advisories that warn of possible carcinogenic effects of fish consumption, because our ability to detect trace amounts of contaminants in the environment far surpasses our ability to predict the health effects they cause. Because epidemiological data are lacking, the human cancer risk of low concentrations of contaminants is most often estimated with mathematical models. Many assumptions are built into these models, however, and they produce at best crude and conservative estimates of the actual health risk. To do a better job of informing the public, fisheries professionals need to understand how these advisories are generated otherwise, anglers may act inappropriately-from totally disregarding the advisories to being afraid to eat fish from any body of water. Proper risk communication can put the health risks associated with eating contaminated fish in perspective by comparing them with other types of risks, inform anglers of how to decrease health risks associated with eating contaminated fish such as by changing fishing habits and using proper techniques for cleaning and cooking fish, and increase anglers' concern for water quality. Anglers can learn to protect their health and still enjoy fishing.
#|Remedial investigation/feasibility study for the Clinch River/Poplar Creek operable unit. 1995. Volume 1. Main text. Oak Ridge National Lab., TN.  Sponsored by Dept. Energy: Washington, D.C.  554p. This is the combined Remedial Investigation/Feasibility Study Report for the Clinch River/Poplar Crack (CR/PC) Operable Unit (OU). The CR/PC OU is located in Anderson and Roane Counties, Tennessee and consists of the Clinch River and several of its embayments in Melton Hill and Watts Bar Reservoirs. These waters have received hazardous substances released over a period of 50 years from the US Department of Energy's Oak Ridge Reservation (ORR), a National Priority List site established under the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act. A remedial investigation has been conducted to determine the current nature and extent of any contamination and to assess the resulting risk to human health and the environment. The feasibility study evaluates remedial action alternatives to identify any that are feasible for implementation and that would effectively reduce risk. Historical studies had indicated that current problems would likely include (sup 137)Cs in sediment of the Clinch River, mercury in sediment and fish of Poplar Creek and PCBs and pesticides in fish from throughout the OU. Peak releases of mercury and (sup 137)Cs occurred over 35 years ago, and current releases are low. Past releases of PCBs from the ORR are poorly quantified, and current releases are difficult to quantify because levels are so low. The site characterization focused on contaminants in surface water, sediment, and biota. Contaminants in surface water were all found to be below Ambient Water Quality Criteria. Other findings included the following: elevated metals including cesium 137 and mercury in McCoy Branch sediments; PCBs and chlordane elevated in several fish species, presenting the only major human health risk, significant ecological risks in Poplar Creek but not in the Clinch River.  Sponsored by Department of Energy, Washington, DC.
#|Remedial investigation/feasibility study for the Clinch River/Poplar Creek operable unit. 1995. Volume 2. Appendixes A, B, C, D.  Oak Ridge National Lab., TN.  Sponsored by Dept. Energy: Washington, D.C. 390p.  This document contains appendices A (water characterization), B (sediment characterization), C (biota Characterization), D (applicable or relevant and appropriate requirements) from the combined Remedial Investigation/Feasibility Study Report for the Clinch River/Poplar Crack (CR/PC) Operable Unit (OU). The CR/PC OU is located in Anderson and Roane Counties, Tennessee and consists of the Clinch River and several of its embayments in Melton Hill and Watts Bar Reservoirs. These waters have received hazardous substances released over a period of 50 years from the US Department of Energy's Oak Ridge Reservation (ORR), a National Priority List site established under the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act. A remedial investigation has been conducted to determine the current nature and extent of any contamination and to assess the resulting risk to human health and the environment. The feasibility study evaluates remedial action alternatives to identify any that are feasible for implementation and that would effectively reduce risk. Historical studies had indicated that current problems would likely include (sup 137)Cs in sediment of the Clinch River, mercury in sediment and fish of Poplar Creek and PCBs and pesticides in fish from throughout the OU. Peak releases of mercury and (sup 137)Cs occurred over 35 years ago, and current releases are low. Past releases of PCBs from the ORR are poorly quantified, and current releases are difficult to quantify because levels are so low. The site characterization focused on contaminants in surface water, sediment, and biota. Contaminants in surface water were all found to be below Ambient Water Quality Criteria. Other findings included the following: elevated metals including cesium 137 and mercury in McCoy Branch sediments; PCBs and chlordane elevated in several fish species, presenting the only major human health risk, significant ecological risks in Poplar Creek but not in the Clinch River.  Sponsored by Department of Energy, Washington.
#|Remedial investigation/feasibility study for the Clinch River/Poplar Creek operable unit. 1995. Volume 3. Appendix E.  Oak Ridge National Lab., TN.  Sponsored by Dept. Energy: Washington, D.C. 437p.This document contains Appendix E: Toxicity Information and Uncertainty Analysis, description of methods, from the combined Remedial Investigation/Feasibility Study Report for the Clinch River/Poplar Crack (CR/PC) Operable Unit (OU). The CR/PC OU is located in Anderson and Roane Counties, Tennessee and consists of the Clinch River and several of its embayments in Melton Hill and Watts Bar Reservoirs. These waters have received hazardous substances released over a period of 50 years from the US Department of Energy's Oak Ridge Reservation (ORR), a National Priority List site established under the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act. A remedial investigation has been conducted to determine the current nature and extent of any contamination and to assess the resulting risk to human health and the environment. The feasibility study evaluates remedial action alternatives to identify any that are feasible for implementation and that would effectively reduce risk. Historical studies had indicated that current problems would likely include (sup 137)Cs in sediment of the Clinch River, mercury in sediment and fish of Poplar Creek and PCBs and pesticides in fish from throughout the OU. Peak releases of mercury and (sup 137)Cs occurred over 35 years ago, and current releases are low. Past releases of PCBs from the ORR are poorly quantified, and current releases are difficult to quantify because levels are so low. The site characterization focused on contaminants in surface water, sediment, and biota. Contaminants in surface water were all found to be below Ambient Water Quality Criteria. Other findings included the following: elevated metals including cesium 137 and mercury in McCoy Branch sediments; PCBs and chlordane elevated in several fish species, presenting the only major human health risk, significant ecological risks in Poplar Creek but not in the Clinch River.  Sponsored by Department of Energy, Washington, DC.
#|Remedial investigation/feasibility study for the Clinch River/Poplar Creek operable unit. 1995. Volume 4. Appendix F.  Oak Ridge National Lab., TN.  Sponsored by Dept. Energy: Washington, D.C.  513p. This section contains ecotoxicological profiles for the COPECs for the combined Remedial Investigation/Feasibility Study Report for the Clinch River/Poplar Crack (CR/PC) Operable Unit (OU). The ecotoxicological information is presented for only those endpoints for which the chemicals are COPECs. The CR/PC OU is located in Anderson and Roane Counties, Tennessee and consists of the Clinch River and several of its embayments in Melton Hill and Watts Bar Reservoirs. These waters have received hazardous substances released over a period of 50 years from the US Department of Energy's Oak Ridge Reservation (ORR), a National Priority List site established under the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act. A remedial investigation has been conducted to determine the current nature and extent of any contamination and to assess the resulting risk to human health and the environment. The feasibility study evaluates remedial action alternatives to identify any that are feasible for implementation and that would effectively reduce risk. Historical studies had indicated that current problems would likely include (sup 137)Cs in sediment of the Clinch River, mercury in sediment and fish of Poplar Creek and PCBs and pesticides in fish from throughout the OU. Peak releases of mercury and (sup 137)Cs occurred over 35 years ago, and current releases are low. Past releases of PCBs from the ORR are poorly quantified, and current releases are difficult to quantify because levels are so low. The site characterization focused on contaminants in surface water, sediment, and biota. Contaminants in surface water were all found to be below Ambient Water Quality Criteria. Other findings included the following: elevated metals including cesium 137 and mercury in McCoy Branch sediments; PCBs and chlordane elevated in several fish species, presenting the only major human health risk, significant ecological risks in Poplar Creek but not in the Clinch River. Sponsored by Department of Energy, Washington, DC.
#|Renner, R. EPA Great Lakes guidance hits a squall.  ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY vol. 29, no. 9, pp. 416A-419, 1995.  After years of study, debate, and revision, EPA released this spring the final version of one of its most ambitious rulemakings: the Great Lakes Water Quality Guidance. As EPA's first attempt to address water quality on a regional, basinwide basis, it paves the way for similar efforts for the Gulf of Mexico and other water bodies. It also contains ground-breaking new methodologies for calculating the impact of bioaccumulative chemicals and presents a two-tiered ranking system for addressing data uncertainty. However, this innovative rule, aimed at setting up and enforcing consistent, science-based water quality standards to protect human health, aquatic life, and wildlife across the Great Lakes watershed, is already caught in a tangle of legal and legislative challenges. As with many environmental regulations, opposition centers on implementation provisions, which are a small part of the vast initiative but control industrial permits and enforcement decisions. The House of Representatives has already prepared draft legislation to limit the initiative's authority, and industry groups are challenging the rule in the courts. Even the Council of Great Lakes Governors, an initial supporter of a basinwide regulatory system, has refused to endorse the final version.
#|Resh VH. Norris RH. Barbour MT. DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF RAPID ASSESSMENT APPROACHES FOR WATER RESOURCE MONITORING USING BENTHIC MACROINVERTEBRATES.  Australian Journal of Ecology. 20(1):108-121, 1995 Mar. Benthic macroinvertebrates are the group of organisms most widely used for assessment of water resources. Rapid assessment approaches are intended to be efficient and cost effective; savings are found in reduced sampling and more efficient data analysis. Rapid bioassessment programmes have been quickly accepted and now cover most of the United States (US) and equivalent programmes cover all of the United Kingdom (UK). Rapid bioassessment programmes are designed to screen large regions, pinpointing trouble spots worthy of more derailed attention. Fundamental to all rapid bioassessment methods is the classification of streams so that comparisons can be made between reference areas and areas of concern, or test sites with similar characteristics. Both the UK and US approaches assess habitat characteristics. These characteristics are used to predict the fauna expected at a rest site in the UK approach; in the US they are used as an aid to classification and interpretation of aquatic faunal data. Habitat assessments in the US are also used to determine whether poor water quality or degraded habitat are stressing the invertebrate communities. This is a major development in approaches to water resource assessment. In the UK, a model developed using multivariate statistics uses a few environmental variables thought to be unaffected by human activities to predict the fauna expected at a test site. The US approaches analyse data using several indices (or metrics) presumed to represent ecological features of interest. These indices have a range of sensitivities to different kinds of stress and must be calibrated for the area of interest. The two approaches have been developed in isolation but may have much to offer each other. Developing programmes are advised to consider both. Future needs include: development of procedures that can be applied to large rivers and to lakes; further refinement of ecological principles underlying metric choice; the inclusion of chemical criteria and toxicity tests to establish thresholds that indicate impairment; and development of criteria indicating the necessity for implementation of quantitative assessment studies.
#|Review and Evaluation of Alternative Chemical Disposal Technologies.  1996.  National Academy Press: Washington, D.C.  State of water quality of Prospect Lake, 1980-95.  1996.  British Columbia.  Water Quality Branch, Victoria.; Environment Canada. Canada-British Columbia Water Quality Monitoring Agreement.  Prospect Lake is located on southern Vancouver Island near Victoria and has a watershed of 23 square kilometres in area. This report assesses 16 years of water quality data, including 16 years (1980-95) of spring overturn water quality sampling and 12 years of faecal coliform sampling. The report includes comparison of the state of the lake's water quality with Ministry of Environment, Lands & Parks Approved and Working Criteria for Water Quality with respect to such parameters as total phosphorus, nitrogen, calcium, faecal coliform, organic carbon, true colour, aluminium, copper, silica, residue, conductivity, turbidity, and pH. Recommendations are made for water quality management of the lake. The actual data are summarised in tables and also presented as box plots.
#|Reynoldson TB, Norris RH, Resh VH, Day KE, Rosenberg DM.  The reference condition: a comparison of multimetric and multivariate approaches to assess water-quality impairment using benthic macroinvertebrates.  JOURNAL OF THE NORTH AMERICAN BENTHOLOGICAL SOCIETY 16: (4) 833-852 DEC 1997.  Traditional methods of establishing control sites in field-oriented biomonitoring studies of water quality are limited. The reference-condition approach offers a powerful alternative because sitesserve as replicates rather than the multiple collections within sites that are the replicates in traditional designs using inferential statistics. With the reference-condition approach, an array of reference sites characterises the biological condition of a region; a test site is then compared to an appropriate subset of the reference sites, or to all the reference sites with probability weightings. This paper compares the procedures for establishing reference conditions, and assesses the strengths and deficiencies of multimetric (as used in the USA) and multivariate methods (as used in the UK, Canada, and Australia) for establishing water-quality status. A data set of environmental measurements and macroinvertebrate collections from the Eraser River, British Columbia, was used in the comparison. Precision and accuracy of the 2 multivariate methods tested (AUStralian RIVer Assessment Scheme: AusRivAS, BEnthic Assessment of SedimenT: BEAST) were consistently higher than for the multimetric assessment. Classification by ecoregion, stream order, and biotic group yielded precisions of 100% for the AusRivAS, 80-100% for the BEAST, and 40-80% for multimetrics; and accuracies of 100%, 100%, and 38-88%, respectively. Multimetrics are attractive because they produce a single score that is comparable to a target value and they include ecological information. However, not all information collected is used, metrics are often redundant in a combination index, errors can be compounded, and it is difficult to acquire current procedures.  Multivariate methods are attractive because they require no prior assumptions either in creating groups out of reference sites or in comparing test sites with reference groups. However, potential users may be discouraged by the complexity of initial model construction. The complementary emphases in the multivariate methods examined (presence/absence in AusRivAS cf. abundance in BEAST) lead us to recommend that they be used together, and in conjunction with, multimetric studies.
#|RHEE, YOUNG-YUN. MODELING METHODOLOGY FOR DETERMINING POLLUTANT CONCENTRATIONS AND LOADINGS FOR COMBINED SEWER OVERFLOWS: A SIMPLIFIED CSO MODEL (MICHIGAN, DETROIT RIVER, ROUGE RIVER). PH.D.  1995.  WAYNE STATE UNIVERSITY.  A major portion of the Detroit River basin encompasses the Detroit Metropolitan area. Urban development impacts on the Detroit River water quality make it necessary to carefully plan and implement good management practices for these basins. The population in the basin is approximately 4 million and the Detroit River provides important habitat for fish and birds. The Detroit River receives treated and untreated waste water from the City of Detroit and suburban districts (Wayne County, Macomb County, and Oakland County), industries, runoff from urban and agricultural lands, and effluent from Combined Sewer Overflows. CSO's have been demonstrated as a major source of conventional and toxic contamination to the Detroit River, as evidenced by the 1979-1980 major monitoring and modeling work on the Section 201 Final Facilities Plan conducted by the Joint Venture to characterize the DR CSO loadings.  A simplified CSO model is developed as a rapid and inexpensive way to estimate and assess potential environmental hazards. The goal of the present work is to use the field data generated by the current SEMCOG/USGS/DWSD CSO study and other resources to build a simplified CSO model capable of correlating and predicting the CSO concentrations and loadings to the Detroit River. Because actual case studies involved complicated geometry and source functions, the modeling was performed in two model scenarios. First, daily average based estimation of CSO's concentrations was conducted using the cadmium data in 1980 from Section 201 Final Facilities Plan report for whole Detroit River basin. Second, storm event based estimation of CSO's concentrations was performed for 4 sampling sites. Four CSO's discharging to the Detroit River were monitored in 1994-1995 to characterize storm-related water quantity and quality to calculate their respective annual pollutant loads.
#|Ribeyre, F.; Amiard-Triquet, C.; Boudou, A.; Amiard, J.-C.  Experimental study of interactions between five trace elements -- Cu, Ag, Se, Zn, and Hg -- toward their bioaccumulation by fish (Brachydanio rerio) from the direct route.  ECOTOXICOL. ENVIRON. SAF  VOL. 32, NO. 1, pp. 1-11, 1995.  Actions and interactions between five elements-copper, zinc, silver, selenium, and methyl mercury-toward their bioaccumulation in fish (Brachydanio rerio) were studied after 12 days exposure, via the direct contamination route. The experimental approach was based on a centered composite factorial design: 43 different contamination conditions were studied simultaneously, with five concentration levels in the water for each element.  Contaminated media were cyclically renewed (48 hr renewal cycle), in order to control the fish exposure conditions. Data treatment was essentially based on the multiple regression technique, applied successively to the complete factorial design (2 super(5) = 32 conditions) and to the centered composite design (43 conditions). Results show a complex set of actions and interactions between the elements. The most striking result is a marked interaction between silver and methyl mercury: when Ag is present in the water jointly with MeHg, it exerts a negative action on Hg bioaccumulation in the fish, at the whole organism level.  Bioaccumulation of silver is also significantly influenced by the presence of Zn, Cu, and Se in the water, the action of these three elements producing an increase in the amounts of Ag in the organisms. This study corresponds to an exploratory phase in order to reveal interaction effects on the bioaccumulation processes by fish and then to set up more in-depth analysis to increase progressively the understanding of the ecotoxicological mechanisms involved.
#|Ribo, Juan M.  Interlaboratory comparison of studies of the luminescent bacteria toxicity bioassay.  Environmental Toxicology and Water Quality  12 (4):p283-294 Nov.,1997. This article presents results and conclusions obtained from the interlaboratory comparison studies of the luminescent bacteria toxicity assay performed during three consecutive years. This assay is one of the recommended bioassays used in the current Spanish and Catalonian regulations for toxicity assessment of industrial discharges. It is used routinely to assess the level of contamination of industrial wastewaters, and to calculate a levy related to volume and contaminant load of industrial wastewater discharges. The objective of these exercises was to evaluate the repeatability of results obtained using this bioassay when used to assess toxicity of diverse wastewaters. Differences in bacterial sensitivity toward chemical substances, storage conditions, reagents, and sample handling, and minute differences in test procedure, may result in increased deviations when testing identical samples in different laboratories. A discussion on experimental conditions and test variables that may affect variability of results of this bioassay is provided. Studies were performed yearly from 1993 to 1995, using four series of five samples in each exercise. Samples tested included standard solutions of pure compounds, and effluents collected either from industrial or municipal discharges. The number of participants increased steadily (11 in 1993, 19 in 1994, 24 in 1995), which indicates increasing awareness of private and public laboratories in this type of quality assurance exercise. Overall, the relative standard deviations were respectively 48.8, 42.2, and 35.5%, which indicates not only a better knowledge of the nature of the assay, but also a trend of improvement in experimental procedures and quality assurance programs within each laboratory.
#|Rice, R. W.; Izuno, F. T. Techniques for assessing BMP effectiveness in the absence of historical baseline data. Applied Engineering in Agriculture vol. 14 (4):  p.381-389, 1998.  This study was conducted to address concerns regarding the absence of farm-level phosphorus (P) drainage databases, and uncertainty surrounding methods to assess P-reductions under untested BMPs (best management practices) in the Everglades Agricultural Area (EAA), USA. Ten farms representative of EAA production systems were instrumented to monitor unit area P load (UAL) discharges from August 1992 through April 1996. P-discharge trends during baseline and subsequent BMP operations were compared using 3 different analytical methods. Each method employed some measure of hydrologic adjustment to UAL data in order to address the strikingly different rainfall distributions that occurred during baseline and BMP monitoring periods. The first method involved the calculation of total UAL to rainfall (UAL:R) ratios for each period and these 'normalized' UALs were then compared. The second method involved the re-expression of daily rainfall and UAL data into separate baseline and BMP cumulative databases. The third method assessed farm discharge trends over time using a model developed by state regulators to annually evaluate basin P-reduction compliance. With method 1, BMP UAL:R were 3-33% lower than for baseline, reflecting UAL reductions under modified water management (BMPs) responses to rainfall. With method 2, BMP cumulative distribution slope values for 6 farms were 6-35% smaller than baseline, reflecting long-term UAL reductions under BMPs. Omitting disproportionate basin-wide flooding effects during a single storm event, 8 farms recorded reductions.  For these 8 farms, annual UALs calculated with method 3 declined by 15 to 83% over a 3-year period. Across all 3 analyses, 2 farms suffered increasing UAL trends after major crop rotation changes without concurrent hydraulic BMP implementation. Despite high rainfall variability and limited baseline data, these 3 analysis methods verify farm-level P reductions under BMPs for sugarcane, vegetable, rice,and mixed-crop systems.
#|Richards J. Burnison B K. Playle R C.  Are all dissolved organic matters equally protective against bindings in fish gills.  24th Annual Aquatic Toxicity Workshop, Niagara Falls, Ontario, Canada, October 20-22, 1997. Canadian Technical Report of Fisheries & Aquatic Sciences 0(2192). 1997. 98.
#|Richardson J.  Acute ammonia toxicity for eight New Zealand indigenous freshwater species.  New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 31 (2). 1997.  185-190.  The acute toxicity of un-ionised ammonia to seven New Zealand indigenous fish and one indigenous crustacean species was established. Shrimp (Paratya curvirostris) was the most sensitive species, followed by banded kokopu (Galaxias fasciatus), common bully (Gobiomorphus cotidianus), common smelt (Retropinna retropinna), redfin bully (G. huttoni), inanga (Galaxias maculatus), and longfin and shortfin eels (Anguilla dieffenbachii and A. australis). The 96 h LC-50 at 15 degree C and pH 7.5 and pH 8.1 ranged from 0.75 to 2.35 mg NH-3 l-1 for these species. Unusually, New Zealand fish were more tolerant to ammonia than some native invertebrate species tested by a similar method. Within the limits of the life stages and species tested here, adequate protection is provided for native fish by adopting US Environmental Protection Agency ammonia criteria.
#|Riihimaeki, V. F. H. F. (1994). The Nordic Expert Group for Criteria Documentation of Health Risks from Chemicals, 112: 2-ethylhexanoic acid.  Arbetsmiljoeinstitutet. Solna (Sweden) 31.
#|Rinella, F. A., Mullins, W. H., & Schuler, C. A. (1994). Reconnaissance investigation of water quality, bottom sediment, and biota associated with irrigation drainage in the Owyhee and Vale projects, Oregon and Idaho, 1990-91. Water Resources Investigation Report: 93-4156.  A reconnaissance investigation was conducted during 1990-91 in the Owyhee and Vale projects in eastern Oregon and southwestern Idaho, as well as at a number of sites in the Snake River and tributaries to the Snake River in the area of study. The objective of the study was to determine if agricultural drainwater entering the study area was causing, or had the potential to cause, significant harmful effects to human health, fish and wildlife, or may adversely affect the suitability of water for beneficial uses. Approximately 153,000 acres of land are irrigated annually within the areas of the Owyhee and Vale projects. Large quantities of water are required because of the semiarid climate and relatively high evaporation rates. Several reservoirs in the area are filled annually during the wet, nonirrigation season to sustain irrigation during the dry summer months. During the irrigation season, this impounded water, along with direct diversions from the Malheur, Owyhee, and Snake Rivers, is transported to the irrigated areas through a series of diversion tunnels, siphons, canals, aqueducts, ditches, and drains. Major crops grown in the area include sugar beets, alfalfa hay and other hay crops, onions, and winter wheat. Minor crops include corn, potatoes, mint, various seed crops, and fruit. In 1987, it was estimated that the following amounts of pesticides were used in the project areas: 2,4-D (21,000 lbs [pounds]), chlorpyrifos (1,000 lbs), dacthal (40,000 lbs), dicamba (320 lbs), endosulfan (2,500 lbs), ethion (11,000 lbs), malathion (24,000 lbs), parathion (5,000 lbs), and phorate (11,000 lbs). Median concentrations and values for total dissolved solids, alkalinity, sodium adsorption ratio, and hardness in the Vale project area were greater than 1.5 times those values observed in the Owyhee project area or at other Snake River locations. During irrigation (August 1990), total dissolved solids, alkalinity, sodium adsorption ratio, and hardness values increased in a downstream manner. Constituent values at drainwater sites generally were comparable to concentrations below the irrigated areas in the Owyhee and Vale project areas. The trace elements arsenic, boron, copper, molybdenum, vanadium, and zinc were detected in most water samples cadmium, chromium, lead, and selenium were detected in some samples at concentrations generally near the analytical reporting limit mercury was not detected in any samples. In some water samples, concentrations of arsenic, boron, cadmium, copper, and lead exceeded State or Federal water-quality standards or criteria. Most trace elements in bottom sediment were detected at concentrations within the expected 95-percent baseline range for soils from the Western United States. Concentrations that exceeded the 95-percent baseline range for study area soils were: (1) arsenic and lead in one sample from a site in the Vale project area (2) mercury, lead, and tin in one sample from a site in the Snake River system (3) manganese in two samples from two sites in the Snake River system and (4) manganese from one sample from a site in the Vale project area. Chemical and biological data collected during this reconnaissance investigation was not conclusive as to whether irrigation drainage from the Owyhee and Vale project areas has caused or has the potential to cause harmful effects on human health, fish, and wildlife. Concentrations of total dissolved solids, major ions, nitrate plus nitrite, arsenic, boron, and selenium increased during the irrigation period. These increases were detected from above to below the irrigated areas in the Owyhee and Vale project areas, and may be the result of irrigation of the agricultural areas. Elevated pesticide concentrations detected in surface water and bottom sediment within agricultural drains and below the irrigated areas, in the project areas, further indicate that these concentrations result from current and (or) historical application of pesticides to the irrigated agricultural areas. However, results of the biological data collected during this investigation do not support the findings of the water-chemistry or bottom-sediment data. Contaminants in some of the biological tissues were sufficiently elevated to exceed recommended guidelines for the protection of human health, fish, and wildlife however, these elevated concentrations were not consistently found in all sample media or at all sites.
#|Risser,-D.W.; Siwiec,-S.F. Water-quality assessment of the lower Susquehanna River Basin, Pennsylvania and Maryland: Environmental setting. SGS-Water-Resources-Investigations-Report USGS.70 pp. The environmental setting is the framework of natural and human components that influence water quality within the Lower Susquehanna River Basin. Because a principal objective of the National Water-Quality Assessment is to relate water quality to factors that affect its composition, an understanding of the environmental setting is essential for successful completion of the study. The study unit consists of 9,350 square miles of the Lower Susquehanna River Basin from where the West Branch joins the main stem of the Susquehanna River near Sunbury, Pa., downstream to the Chesapeake Bay at Havre de Grace, Md. The basin lies predominantly in the Ridge and Valley and Piedmont Physiographic Provinces and is underlain by Precambrian to Triassic bedrock. About 98 percent of the biological communities in the basin are situated within the Central Appalachian Ridges and Valleys and Northern Piedmont ecoregions. Precipitation averages about 40 inches per year and its pH averaged between 4.08 and 4.20 during 1982-88; this precipitation is some of the most acidic in the nation. The Susquehanna River discharges an average of about 38,300 cubic feet per second of water into Chesapeake Bay. This discharge carries about 45 percent of the freshwater, 40 percent of the sediment, 39 percent of the nitrogen and 24 percent of the phosphorus to the bay. Before entering Chesapeake Bay, the Susquehanna flows through four major dams; the three nearest the mouth of the river have trapped 259 million tons of sediment, 913,000 tons of nitrogen and 226,000 tons of phosphorus. Ground water is present in regolith and fractured bedrock and is encountered at depths ranging from a few feet below land surface in valley settings to as much as 100 feet beneath hills. Ground-water flow paths, controlled mainly by topography and depth of fracturing, are local and generally less than about 300 feet deep. On average, base flow of streams accounts for about 60 percent of total streamflow and sustains streamflow during dry periods. In carbonate-rock terranes, where base flow can exceed 80 percent of streamflow, the ground-water contributions to streams not only sustain streamflow but provide the quality of water needed to create the exceptional value, cold-water fishery habitats for which "limestone streams" in the study area are well known. The 1.9 million people who inhabit the Lower Susquehanna River Basin affect the basin's water quality by disrupting natural physical characteristics of the basin (soil, vegetation, physiography) and by directly adding contaminants to surface water and land. The greatest effects are in the southeastern part of the basin in and around Harrisburg, Lancaster and York where about 71 percent of the population resides. Land use in the basin is about 47 percent agriculture, 47 percent forest and 4 percent urban. The remaining 2 percent consists of bodies of water and barren land. Some of the most intensive agriculture in Pennsylvania is in the southeastern part of the study unit. Annual applications of nitrogen from manure in some parts of this area are as large as 92 pounds per acre per year. Mining of coal is the greatest cause of severe stream water- quality degradation in the basin. About 300 stream miles have been significantly contaminated by mine drainage. The urban environment provides contaminants from nonpoint source runoff, sewage- treatment facilities, industrial discharges, landfills and leaking storage tanks. About 600 point-source discharges of wastes to streams (excluding single residences and small flows) are legally permitted by the State in the study unit. Of these, 49 major public-owned sewage-treatment plants discharge about 155 million gallons per day of effluent. Twenty-three major industrial discharges total about 93 million gallons per day, the largest of which are wastewater from food processing, paper making and steel making. Other activities affecting water quality include surface impoundments, septic systems, land application of sludge and injection wells.
#|Roberts, P J W ; Ferrier, A.  Understanding mixing zones.  WATER ENVIRONMENT AND TECHNOLOGY vol. 8, no. 7, pp. 39-43, 1996. When wastewater is discharged into the environment, it may be diluted rapidly, resulting in reductions of contaminant concentrations to safe levels within a short distance of the discharge - an area called the "mixing zone." EPA recognized this phenomenon in the Technical Support Document for Water Quality Based Toxics Control in September 1991. Acute and chronic water quality criteria can be exceeded within the mixing zone as long as the criteria are met at the mixing zone boundary. Predicting mixing zone characteristics is difficult because of the complexity of mixing hydrodynamics. A new method, laser-induced fluorescence, provides new insights about mixing processes that can improve mathematical models. It can be used to measure and demonstrate the efficiency of mixing in scale-model studies of specific cases, especially those characterized by complex geometries. Because laboratory studies cannot simulate all flow features, field studies are invaluable sources of basic information on mixing phenomena and provide verification of mixing zone behavior.  Laser-induced fluorescence also is emerging as a useful tool for these field studies.
#|Robinson CT, Minshall GW.  Regional assessment of wadable streams in Idaho, USA.  GREAT BASIN NATURALIST 58: (1) 54-65 JAN 1998.  There has been a resurgence in applying bioassessment techniques for evaluating and monitoring the biological integrity of stream ecosystems. In all uses biological metrics have been refined to account for regional variation in aquatic habitats and fauna. This study evaluated environmental and macroinvertebrate properties for wadable streams in 3 major ecoregions Idaho: Northern Basin and Range, Snake River Plain. and. Northern Rocky Mountain. These 3 ecoregions constitute >80% of the land area in Idaho. Reference streams were delineated from test streams in each ecoregion using standard habitat assessment protocols (Plafkin et al. 1989). Multiple discriminant analysis effectively determined habitat (quantified measures) and macroinvertebrate differences between reference and test streams within ecoregions, although the results suggested that quantifiable habitat measures (e.g., water chemistry and nutrients) and biotic metrics based on taxonomic groups (e.g., % Elmidae) improved the discriminatory power of evaluation procedures. Our results support the contention of a multi-metric approach for assessing differences among streams within an ecoregion. Lastly, individual metrics differed in their importance or evaluating stream condition among ecoregions, further emphasizing the importance of regionally stratifying metric selection or scoring procedures.
#|Robinson,-Christopher-T.; Minshall,-G.-Wayne.  Biological metric development for the assessment of nonpoint pollution in the Snake River ecoregion of Southern Idaho : 1990-1991 final report. [Pocatello, Idaho : Dept. of Biological Sciences, Idaho State University, 1991] 75 p.
#|Rodgers, J H ,Jr ; Deaver, E ; Suedel, B C ; Rogers, P L.  Comparative aqueous toxicity of silver compounds: Laboratory studies with freshwater species.  BULLETIN OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY vol. 58, no. 6, pp. 851-858, 1997.  Data regarding the comparative toxicity of silver to a variety of aquatic organisms can contribute to our understanding of species at risk, and characteristics of concern when evaluating systems in situ.  The variety of forms of silver utilized in commerce and industry may serve to complicate development of a generic risk characterization scenario. Therefore, it is crucial to examine the bioavailability and toxicity of different compounds of silver. The primary objective of this research was to compare the relative sensitivities of five common laboratory freshwater test species to three silver compounds. Two cladoceran species (Ceriodaphnia dubia Richard and Daphnia magna Straus), an epibenthic amphipod (Hyalella azteca Saussure), the larval stage of a midge (Chironomus tentans Fabricius), and a fish (the fathead minnow, Pimephales promelas Rafinesque) were used in this study. These freshwater species vary in size, physiology, feeding strategy and habitat preference. The silver compounds chosen for this study, silver nitrate [AgNO sub(3)], silver chloride [AgCl], and silver thiosulfate complex [Ag (S sub(2)O sub(3)) sub(n)], have different industrial uses, solubilities, potential speciation, and presumably, toxicities.
#|Rodgers,-D.W.; Schroeder,-J.; Vereecken-Sheehan,-L. Comparison of Daphnia magna, rainbow trout and bacterial-based toxicity tests of Ontario Hydro aquatic effluents. Int. Clean Water Conf.: Clean Water: Factors That Influence Its Availability, Quality and Its Use, La Jolla, CA (USA) 28-30 Nov 1995.  Water-Air-and-Soil-Pollution 1996  vol. 90, no. 1-2, pp. 105-112.  Over a one year program of intensive monitoring of effluents from Ontario Hydro's nuclear, fossil and hydroelectric generating facilities, the Daphnia magna and rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss, acute toxicity tests correlated well, with 61% of the toxic effluents toxic to both species. If the effluent was toxic to only one of the test species it was generally toxic to D. magna, with from 23 to 57% of the toxic effluents toxic to D. magna only. The greater sensitivity of D. magna to boiler blowdown effluent likely resulted from a combination of the low conductivity of boiler blowdown effluent and the smaller size and greater surface to volume ratio of D. magna relative to rainbow trout. D. magna were also particularly susceptible to oil/water separator samples, with the daphnids frequently observed to be caught at the surface/water interface. These observations suggest that an accumulation of organic material at the air/water interface was responsible for the mortality of D. magna. In subsequent tests, we also examined the relationship between the D. magna acute toxicity test and a bacterial-based assay (Toxi-Chromotest registered ) for several toxic effluents from Ontario Hydro stations to determine if bacterial-based tests could provide similar information in less time with smaller sample volumes. The D. magna acute toxicity test did not correlate well with the bacterial-based Toxi-chromotest registered . In particular, many of the samples which were toxic to D. magna were not toxic to the Toxi-chromotest registered assay. The poor correlation between the D. magna and Toxi-chromotest registered likely relates to both the relatively low toxicity of many of the effluent samples, and the fact that in many cases toxicity likely resulted from relatively simple combinations of inorganic toxicants. Accordingly, the Toxi-Chromotest registered assay would not seem suitable as a surrogate for the D. magna acute toxicity test for our effluents.
#|Rodriguez Presa M.J., Catoggio J.A., Posadas D., & Tucceri R.I. (1998). Determination of the complexation capacity of waters. Measurements on model systems and natural waters employing copper as the titrating ion.  Environmental Technology; 19/1 (45-54).  The complexation capacity of both model systems and natural waters was investigated by anodic stripping voltammetry (ASV) employing copper as the titrating ion. EDTA, NTA, citrate and humic acids were employed as model systems. Natural waters from the Santiago River were also investigated. In some cases the influence of the electrode rotating speed on the lability of the species involved was investigated. The experimental results were analyzed employing diagnosis criteria proposed by previous workers for lability, complex strength and stability constants.
#|Romijn, C. A. F. M. Presentation of a General Algorithm to Include Effect Assessment on Secondary Poisoning in the Derivation of Environmental Quality Criteria. 2. Terrestrial Food Chains.  Ecotoxicol Environ Saf  v27, n2, p107(21), Mar 94.  A previously developed algorithm based on a two-step aquatic food chain had been used to test whether surface water quality criteria constitute a safe level for secondary poisoning. The extension of this algorithm for effect assessment in a terrestrial food chain was evaluated by application to the soil-earthworm-bird/mammal pathway. Bioconcentration factors (BCFs) of six pollutants for earthworm and toxicity data for birds and mammals were culled from the literature and compared with BCFs for the aquatic food chain. Secondary poisoning was found to be a critical pathway for worm-eating birds for cadmium and methylmercury and for worm-eating mammals for methylmercury. The MPC for direct poisoning for the other compounds tested constituted a safe level for secondary poisoning.
#|Romijn, C. A. F. M., Luttik, R., Meent, D. V. D., Slooff, W., & Canton, J. H. (1993). Presentation of a general algorithm to include effect assessment on secondary poisoning in the derivation of environmental quality criteria. Part 1. Aquatic food chains.  ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY, vol. 26, no. 1, pp. 61-85. Effect assessment on secondary poisoning can be an asset to effect assessments on direct poisoning in setting quality criteria for the environment. This study presents an algorithm for effect assessment on secondary poisoning. The water-fish-fish-eating bird or mammal pathway was analyzed as an example of a secondary poisoning pathway. Parameters used in this algorithm are the bioconcentration factor for fish (BCF) and the no-observed-effect concentration for the group of fish-eating birds and mammals (NOEC sub(fish-eater)). For the derivation of reliable BCFs preference is given to the use of experimentally derived BCFs over QSAR estimates. NOECs for fish eaters are derived by extrapolating toxicity data on single species. Because data on fish-eating species are seldom available, toxicity data on all birds and mammalian species were used. The proposed algorithm (MAR = NOEC sub(fish-eater)/BCF) was used to calculate MARs (maximum acceptable risk levels) for the compounds lindane, dieldrin, cadmium, mercury, PCB153, and PCB118. By subsequently comparing these MARs to MARs derived by effect assessment for aquatic organisms, it was concluded that for methyl mercury and PCB153 secondary poisoning of fish-eating birds and mammals could be a critical pathway. For these compounds, effects on populations of fish-eating birds and mammals can occur at levels in surface water below the MAR calculated for aquatic ecosystems. Secondary poisoning of fish-eating birds and mammals is not likely to occur for cadmium at levels in water below the MAR calculated for aquatic ecosystems.
#|Roper, J M ; Cherry, D S ; Simmers, J W ; Tatem, H E.  Bioaccumulation of toxicants in the zebra mussel, Dreissena polymorpha, at the Times Beach Confined Disposal Facility, Buffalo, New York.  ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION vol. 94, no. 2, pp. 117-129, 1996.  This study consisted of a site characterization followed by biomonitoring the zebra mussel, Dreissena polymorpha, at the Times Beach Confined Disposal Facility (CDF), located in Buffalo, New York.  Concentrations of selected contaminants, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and metals-arsenic (As), chromium (Cr), barium (Ba), mercury (Hg), cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), selenium (Se) and silver (Ag)-were at or below detection limits in the water column. Sediment contaminant concentrations, recorded as dry weight, were as high as 549 mg/kg for total PAHs, 9 mg/kg for PCB Aroclor 1248 and 54, 99, 6, 355, 637 and 16 mg/kg for the metals As, Ba, Cd, Cr, Pb and Hg, respectively. To predict contaminant bioavailability, elutriate and whole sediment toxicity tests were performed utilizing the cladoceran, Daphnia magna.  Whole sediment tests indicated significant impact. Control survival was 84%, while sediment treatment had survival ranging from 1 to 7%. Mean control reproduction was 86.8 neonates, whereas treatment reproduction ranged from 1.4 to 9.0. Zebra mussels placed both in the water column (Upper) and at the sediment level (Lower) survived the 34-day exposure.  Contaminants that significantly accumulated in zebra mussel tissue (wet wt mg/kg) were total PAHs (6.58), fluoranthene (1.23), pyrene (1.08), chrysene (0.98), benzo(a)anthracene (0.60), PCB Aroclor 1248 (1.64), As (0.97), Cr (2.87) and Ba (7.00). Accumulation of these contaminants in zebra mussel tissue represent a potentially realistic hazard to organisms (i.e. fish and birds) that feed on them.
#|Rose Jones N. Richards J. Ostrowski L. Playle R C.  Protective effects of dissolved organic carbon against physiological disturbances of waterborne silver on rainbow trout. 24th Annual Aquatic Toxicity Workshop, Niagara Falls, Ontario, Canada, October 20-22, 1997. Canadian Technical Report of Fisheries & Aquatic Sciences 0(2192). 1997. 98-99.
#|Rosen, B. H., Bachmann, R. W., Jones, J. R., Peters, R. H., & Soballe, D. M. e. (1995). Potential watershed management strategies for improving water quality in Lake Okeechobee.  LAKE AND RESERVOIR MANAGEMENT, vol. 11, no. 2, p. 184. The Lake Okeechobee Surface Water Improvement and Management (SWIM) plan was developed to protect and restore Lake Okeechobee in order to meet regional environmental, potable and agricultural water supply needs. The project described here focused on exceedances of State of Florida Class I (drinking) water quality standards that threaten the use of the lake as a potable water source for the surrounding lake-side communities, as well as Class III (aquatic life protection) standards, with violations that could adversely affect the lake ecosystem. Of the parameters with documented exceedances, pH, alkalinity, chloride, dissolved oxygen, turbidity, un-ionized ammonia, and iron have the greatest potential to affect either the aquatic resources or the drinking water suitability of Lake Okeechobee. Many exceedances were natural in origin, such as pH, alkalinity and iron, while others were indirectly linked to anthropogenic alterations in the landscape, i.e., low dissolved oxygen in groundwater seeping into the man-made canal system during pumping events (for flood control), and not directly from loadings of oxygen-demanding materials. Potential management strategies are divided into four categories: agriculture, marina, canal management, and administrative measures. For agriculture, these strategies include filter strips, buffer zones, conservation tillage, irrigation reuse. Marina strategies include liquid waste management. Canal management includes oxygen injection, air injection, pump modification, sediment removal and constructed wetlands. Administrative measures include site-specific alternative criteria and mixing zones. Strategies for each parameter have been developed that may be used prevent the water quality exceedances in Lake Okeechobee.
#|Roshon, R D ; Stephenson, G R ; Horton, R F. Comparison of five media for the axenic culture of Myriophyllum sibiricum Komarov.  HYDROBIOLOGIA vol. 340, no. 1-3, pp. 17-22, 1996.  Int. Symp. on Aquatic Weeds: Management and Ecology of Freshwater Plants.  Dublin (Ireland), 1994.  Myriophyllum sibiricum Komarov, an aquatic dicotyledonous macrophyte with a north temperate distribution, was assessed for use in a new bioassay to determine the effect of pesticides, agricultural runoff and municipal waste upon non-target aquatic macrophytes. An axenic culturing system was developed for which an optimal growth medium is required before a bioassay will be reliable. Five media (Murashige and Skoog, Hoagland's, Gaudet's, modified Andrew's, and Hard Water media), commonly used for aquatic plant culturing, were compared to determine the effect on M. sibiricum growth and development.  Morphological endpoints for the assay included shoot length, total root length and number, fresh weight and plant area.  Membrane integrity, chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and carotenoid content were the physiological endpoints examined. Based upon these criteria, the modified Andrew's medium at a pH of 5.8, without the addition of a buffer was chosen as a medium which supported rapid and consistent development of M. sibiricum during the two week assay period.
#|Rott, Gary G.  Alternative to CBOD5-Based Load Allocation Studies on Low-Dilution-Ratio Streams.  Journal of Environmental Engineering, vol.122, no.7, p 669-671, July 1996.  Carbonaceous BOD5 and ammonia effluent limitations for low-dilution-ratio receiving waters are often determined by using wasteload allocation studies.  These studies are labor intensive.  They require one-third to one-half a work year to complete. Due to bacteria population dynamics, biological-wastewater treatment plants producing a highly nitrified effluent also produce an effluent low in carbonaceous BOD5. Using the BOD-ammonia relationship, regulators can achieve the same net results as labor-intensive load allocation studies with only 1% or 2% of the labor, if they concentrate on just protecting the receiving water's un-ionized ammonia standard. Four years of monthly effluent reports from 22 nitrifying wastewater treatment facilities were examined. This examination showed that this alternative to time-consuming wasteload allocation studies is practical.
#|Roux D J, Jooste S H J, & Mackay H M.  Substance-specific water quality criteria for the protection of South African freshwater ecosystems: Methods for derivation and initial results for some inorganic toxic substances.  South African Journal of Science, 92 (4). 1996.  198-206. Freshwater ecosystems form the resource base on which water users, such as the agricultural, recreational, domestic and industrial sectors, depend. These essential resources therefore need to be protected and maintained in a healthy state. The Department of Water Affairs and Forestry is currently developing water quality criteria for the protection of South African freshwater ecosystems, to complement the existing National Water Quality Guidelines for domestic, industrial, agricultural and recreational use. This paper describes the methodology for the derivation of in-stream water quality criteria for inorganic toxic substances. Criteria are calculated from the results of acute and chronic toxicity tests on a number of representative species, using local data where available, and relying on international databases to supplement local information. Conservative numerical criteria are provided for aluminium, ammonia, arsenic, boron, cadmium, chlorine, chromium, copper cyanide, fluoride, lead, manganese, mercury, molybdenum, selenium, vanadium and zinc. For each toxic substance, threshold levels at which chronic and acute toxicity effects on aquatic biota can be expected are indicated. The criteria can be applied in water quality evaluation, impact assessment, and in the setting of discharge permit conditions.
#|Ruffier,-P.  Toxic substances in municipal waste water. A guidance manual for negotiating permits. BOCA RATON, FL 33431 (USA). LEWIS PUBLISHERS,1992 240 pp. This book presents information about the effective implementation of water-quality-based toxics control for wastewater treatment plants. It addresses five main subject areas, including approaches to toxics control, legal issues, toxicity identification and reduction evaluations, whole effluent toxicity testing, and chemical specific limits. Case examples from actual experiences illustrate solutions for implementing new water-quality-based permit requirements.
#|SALIGOE-SIMMEL, JULIA L.  ANALYSIS OF STREAMFLOW VARIABILITY IN OREGON FOR REGIONAL WATER QUALITY MONITORING PROGRAMS (NONPOINT SOURCE POLLUTION).  OREGON STATE UNIVERSITY.  PHD.  1998, pp: 154.
#|Sample, B. E. ; Opresko, D. M. ; Suter, G. W.  Toxicological benchmarks for wildlife: 1996 Revision.  Department of Energy, Washington, DC.  Report No.: ES/ER/TM-86/R3.  Jun 96, 219p.  The purpose of this report is to present toxicological benchmarks for assessment of effects of certain chemicals on mammalian and avian wildlife species.  This document provides the Environmental Restoration (ER) Risk Assessment Program with toxicological benchmarks that may be used as comparative tools in screening assessments as well as lines of evidence to support or refute the presence of ecological effects in ecological risk assessments. The chemicals considered in this report are some that occur at US DOE waste sites, and the wildlife species evaluated were chosen because they represent a range of body sizes and diets.
#|Sampling criteria.  WORLDWATER AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING vol. 17, no. 8, pp. 18-19, 1994.  Measuring effluent stream characteristics depends on gathering representative samples for lab analysis conclusions or actions stemming from the measurement depend on the legitimacy of the sample. Many pollution abatement decisions are based on the analyses of such samples. Decision making is only as good as the validity of the sample, and a valid sample depends on good technique when collecting, preserving, and transporting samples.
#|Sanders, R. M., & Huggins, D. G. (1993). The Kansas River system and its biota.  Biological Report.  U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Vol. 19, 295-326.
#|Sansalone, J J ; Buchberger, S G.  Partitioning and first flush of metals in urban roadway storm water.  AMERICAN SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING.  Vol. 123, no. 2, pp. 134-143, 1997.  Storm water runoff from urban roadways often contains significant quantities of metal elements and solids. These anthropogenic constituents are generated mainly from traffic-related activities. Metal elements partition into dissolved and particulate-bound fractions as a function of pH, pavement residence time, and solids concentration. Lateral pavement sheet flow from an experimental field site on a heavily traveled urban highway in Cincinnati was sampled during five rainfall runoff events in 1995.  Results indicate that Zn, Cd, and Cu are mainly in dissolved form while Pb, Fe, and Al are mainly particulate-bound. Dissolved fractions of Zn, Cd, and Cu exhibited a strong first flush in lateral pavement sheet flow. Pb exhibited a weak first flush for all events. Event mean concentrations of Zn, Cd, and Cu exceed surface water quality discharge standards. Findings from this study will assist in the development of effective control strategies for the immobilization of metal elements and solids in urban runoff.
#|Santiago, S ; Thomas, R L ; Larbaigt, G ; Corvi, C ; Rossel, D ; Tarradellas, J ; Gregor, D J ; McCarthy, L ; Vernet, J P.  Nutrient, heavy metal and organic pollutant composition of suspended and bed sediments in the Rhone River.  AQUATIC SCIENCES vol. 56, no. 3, pp. 220-242, 1994.  The environmental quality of the Rhone River (Switzerland-France) has been assessed with a geochemical survey of the pollutants bound to suspended sediments. Ten samples were collected between Lake Geneva and the Mediterranean Sea in Nobember 1989 by continuous flow centrifugation and analysed for grain size distribution, carbonate, organic C, N, forms of particulate P, trace metals, and organic compounds (chlorobenzenes, organochlorine pesticides, PCBs, and PAHs). Four bed sediment samples were also studied for comparative purposes. The suspended solids provide lower variance by parameter than the bed sediments and are clearly most suitable for synoptic monitoring. The Upper Rhone River carries a glacial derived sediment with a low nutrient content, the stretch from Geneva to Lyon provides a sediment dominated by carbonate, and in the Lower Rhone the organic matter and phosphorus are relatively increased, mainly due to wastewater effluents and to an industrial P source. High concentrations of metals and organic micropollutants downstream of Lyon indicate a multiple contamination in the Lower Rhone, whereas more specific inputs are located downstream of Geneva and Arles. The comparison with data from other polluted major systems, the Rhine, the Niagara and the Detroit rivers, shows on overall similarity confirming that the Rhone quality is degraded downstream of Lyon. The levels of particular concern are for Hg, DDT metabolites which reveal a recent release in the basin, PCBs with a likely high chlorine content, and PAHs. The statistical evaluation of the compositional variables indicates a limited number of well defined associations, suggesting that the contamination of the suspended sediments results from the combination of numerous and intermittent point and diffuse sources in the Rhone River basin.
#|Schimmel-S.C.; Thursby-G.B.  SETAC Workshop on Whole Effluent Toxicity Tests. Session 4. Predicting Receiving System Impacts from Effluent Toxicity: A Marine Perspective. Held in Pellston, Michigan on September 16-21, 1995.  National Health and Environmental Effects Research Lab., Narragansett, RI. Atlantic Ecology Div. 1995. 18p. The purpose of this workshop session is to critically examine case studies conducted to evaluate effluent toxicity and related receiving system impacts. One difficulty in this evaluation is that no single marine case study has been designed with the goal to comprehensively evaluate that relationship. Whole Effluent Toxicity (WET) tests originally were not designed to predict receiving system impacts. As the name states, they detect toxicity in whole effluents. In this presentation we emphasize several aspects of WET tests as they relate to case studies. First, we review some of what has been done in the marine environment relative linking effluent toxicity to the receiving system. Second, we propose a purpose for case studies. Finally, we present a discussion of how to improve the use of effluent toxicity data.
#|Schoeneberger, M.M. Woody plant selection for riparian agroforestry projects.  Fort Collins, Colo.: United States Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, [1994.]  Proceedings: Northeastern and Intermountain Forest and Conservation Nursery Associations / p. 123-129. General technical report RM; 243.
#|Scholnick,-D.A.  Seasonal variation and diurnal fluctuations in ephemeral desert pools.  HYDROBIOLOGIA 1994  vol. 294, no. 2, pp. 111-116.  The physical variables which directly affect organisms inhabiting desert ephemeral pools were examined in four pools in southeastern Utah. During the day, pools were hyperoxic (240 torr) and hypocapnic (0.07 torr) while pH and temperature increased (7.5-9.0 & 17-35 degree C respectively). Conversely, predawn pool measurements were hypoxic (40 torr) and hypercapnic (3 torr). While TA increased throughout the season (from 0.4 to 1.43 meq/l), due largely to increased bicarbonate concentration (from 0.5 to 1.4 mmol/l), water osmolarity remained relatively constant. These desert ephemeral systems represent unique environmental habitats where organisms experience both diurnal and seasonal changes in numerous physical variables over short time frames.
#|SCHONTER R, NOVOTNY V.  PREDICTING ATTAINABLE WATER-QUALITY USING THE ECOREGIONAL APPROACH.  WATER SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 28: (3-5) 149-158 1993.  To more adequately protect receiving water bodies, government policy is leading toward adaptation of integrated management approaches that protect the integrity of the ecosystem as a whole. Approaching natural water quality is a goal of integrated water resource management. Ecoregions represent geographical areas of relatively similar background surface form, mineral availability, natural vegetation and land uses, and therefore, represent areas of relatively similar background water quality. Water quality at relatively unimpacted reference locations is representative of regional natural water quality and may be reasonably extrapolated to other similar locations within the ecoregion. These concepts were applied to the Southeastern Wisconsin Till Plains ecoregion and the Milwaukee River, Wisconsin.
#|Schrank CS; Cormier SM; Blazer VS.  Contaminant exposure, biochemical, and histopathological biomarkers in white suckers from contaminated and reference sites in the Sheboygan River, Wisconsin.  JOURNAL OF GREAT LAKES RESEARCH, 1997, V23, N2, P119-130.  Fish populations of the lower Sheboygan River, located in east-central Wisconsin, are considered impaired under the Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement between the United States and Canada.  Pollutants in the Sheboygan River system include: polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and heavy metals. This study compared general health and biochemical parameters, histology of selected organs, and contaminant residues and metabolites in a population of white suckers (Catostomus commersoni) from a contaminated reach of the Sheboygan River and an upstream reference site. Fish from the contaminated site had significantly lower hematocrits, significantly induced ethoxyresourfin-O-deethylase (EROD) activity as a measurement of hepatic mixed-function oxygenase activity, higher biliary metabolites of PAHs, and higher tissue concentrations of PCBs and p,p'-DDE relative to art upstream reference population. Analysis of covariance suggests that both PCB and PAH exposure may be influencing EROD activities. Fish from the contaminated site featured more basophilic clusters and developing nephrons in kidney tissue suggesting the presence of a nephro-toxicant. Also, more fish exhibited hepatic lesions including diffuse cellular vacuolation, multifocal coagulative necrosis, bile ductal hyperplasia, and foci of cellular alteration which may be biomarkers for contaminant impacts. This study demonstrates that white suckers residing in the lower reaches of the Sheboygan River absorbed significant amounts of PAHs and PCBs and also exhibited hematological, biochemical and histological alterations some of which suggest impaired fish condition.
#|Schubauer Berigan, M. K., Monson, P. D., West, C. W., & Ankley, G. T. (1995). Influence of pH on the toxicity of ammonia to Chironomus tentans and Lumbriculus variegatus.  ENVIRON. TOXICOL. CHEM., vol. 14, no. 4, pp. 713-717. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency water-quality criteria establish permissible levels of ammonia in the nation's fresh waters. These criteria are based on accumulated research suggesting that, for most aquatic species (primarily fishes), the toxicity of un-ionized ammonia predominates over that of the ammonium ion. The development of a sediment-quality criterion for ammonia requires evaluation of the relative toxicity of the two ammonia forms to benthic and epibenthic macroinvertebrates to determine whether the water-quality toxicity model can be applied to sediments. Flow-through ammonia toxicity tests were conducted over 10 d with the oligochaete Lumbriculus variegatus and the larval midge Chironomus tentans at four pH values (6.3, 7.2, 7.8, and 8.6) using a unique pH control system. Total ammonia was more toxic at elevated than at low pH to both species, suggesting that un-ionized ammonia (more prevalent at high pH) is important in determining the toxicity of ammonia to these two species. Hardness or alkalinity differences in the range of 30 to 200 mg/kg (as CaCO sub(3)) did not appear to affect the toxicity of ammonia to the two species in separate 4-d tests. Based on results of the 10-d tests, the joint toxicity/pH model that establishes the water-quality criterion value for ammonia appears to be sufficiently protective of L. variegatus and C. tentans, by factors of at least 3 and 10, respectively. However, this study did not address potential differences in exposure of benthic organisms to ammonia in sediments vs. that in the water column nor were the chronic effects of ammonia on these species measured in this study.
#|Schubauer-Berigan-M.K.; Dierkes-J.R.; Monson-P.D.; Ankley-G.T.  pH-Dependent Toxicity of Cd, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn to 'Ceriodaphnia dubia', 'Pimephales promelas', 'Hyalella azteca' and 'Lumbriculus variegatus'. Environmental Research Lab.-Duluth, MN.  AScI Corp., Duluth, MN. 1993. 9p. The speciation and bioavailability of metals are known to be affected by pH. Although many studies have focused on effects on metals of pH changes resulting from lake acidification (i.e., pH change 7 to 4), metal toxicity changes at higher pH values (i.e., pH 6-9) are of great interest to those performing effluent and sediment toxicity testing and toxicity identification evaluations (TIEs). In addition, most previous studies have addressed metal toxicity changes with pH to water-column organisms rather than to benthic or epibenthic species. The authors tested the acute toxicity of five metals (Cd, Cu, Ni, Pb, and Zn) to Ceriodaphnia dubia, Pimephales promelas, Hyalella azteca, and Lumbriculus variegatus at three pH values (6.3, 7.3, and 8.3) in very hard reconstituted water (hardness 300-320 mg/l as CaCO3). Toxicity of Cd, Ni, and Zn was greatest at pH 8.3 and least at pH 6.3 to most of these species. Conversely, the toxicity of Cu and Pb was greatest at pH 6.3 and least at pH 8.3 to most of the species.
#|Schuytema, G. S., Nebeker, A. V., & Griffis, W. L. (1995). Comparative toxicity of guthion and guthion 2S to Xenopus laevis and Pseudacris regilla tadpoles.  BULL. ENVIRON. CONTAM. TOXICOL., vol. 54, no. 3, pp. 382-388. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency is developing water quality criteria for the protection of wildlife species (amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals) to expand existing criteria currently based only on fish and other aquatic life. Criteria for only a few chemicals (DDT, PCBs, mercury, selenium) include wildlife data. Water quality criteria data based on the sensitivity of amphibians to potentially hazardous chemicals in the environment are needed. The development of a water quality data base for amphibians should also take the formulation of the pesticide into consideration. Guthion (azinphosmethyl) is a widely-used organophosphate pesticide. Over 520,000 kg active ingredient (AI) were used in the United States on fruit crops and cotton in the major producing states in 1991 (USDA 1992a, 1992b). The large quantities of Guthion used in Louisiana sugar cane plantations can potentially enter surrounding wetlands and have adverse effects on commercially important crayfish populations. Similarly, direct application and associated run-off has the potential for adversely affecting non-target amphibian populations. There is little evidence to indicate Guthion would cause adverse effects through the food chain. Others suggested, however, that based on their test results and the resistance of amphibians to cholinesterase inhibitors that a number of organophosphate pesticides may be concentrated to varying degrees and thus may represent a hazard to amphibian predators. The purpose of this study was to evaluate mortality and growth in Xenopus laevis (African clawed frog) and Pseudacris regilla (Pacific treefrog) tadpoles exposed to technical and formulation grades of Guthion, a representative organophosphate pesticide.
#|Sebasco, S M. Best Professional Judgment: A synthesis of environmental law, waste discharge, effluent limita.  WATER ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT vol. 143, no. 10, pp. 18-21, 1996.  Today's Best Professional Judgments (BPJs) are scrutinized closer than professional football players were when the National Football League allowed the referees to use instant replay to make judgment calls. However, by experience in the environmental field and by reading and applying a minimum base of references like The Environmental Law Handbook (Government Institutes, Inc.) and West's Environmental Law Statutes, one can see that environmental law is no game. According to The Environmental Law Handbook, "the environmental law system" is defined as "an organized way of using all of the laws in our legal system to minimize, prevent, punish or remedy the consequences of actions which damage or threaten the environment, public health and safety." Where do BPJs fit into the environmental law system? If you are ever applying for an NPDES permit and believe that the monitoring requirements (for the waste your employer is discharging) are inadequate to yield accurate data, the regulations put the burden of requesting additional monitoring requirements, that are sufficient to achieve an acceptable degree of accuracy, on you. Since the situation of BPJ is most likely to arise pending promulgation of new limitations for toxic pollutants, or in connection with facilities for which no specific set of limitations is wholly applicable, it is necessary to understand how discharge levels and effluent limits are determined.
#|Segner H. Lenz D. Hanke W. Schueuermann G.  Cytotoxicity of metals toward rainbow trout R1 cell line. Environmental Toxicology & Water Quality 9 (4). 1994. 273-279. Cultured fish cells are of potential use in the initial screening of the adverse effects of aquatic pollutants. In the present study, R1 cells, a fibroblast-like cell line derived from liver tissue of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), were exposed to 13 metal salts. Cytotoxicity was assessed by the neutral red uptake inhibition test. The rank order of cytotoxicity for the cationic metals was silver gt mercury gt cadmium gt zinc gt copper gt nickel gt lead; for the anionic metal complexes it was arsenite gt dichromate gt chromate gt arsenate gt selenite gt permanganate gt selenate. Metal cytotoxicity toward R1 cells showed close correlation with the cytotoxicity values of metals toward the BF-2 cell line from bluegill sunfish (r = 0.98).  For the divalent cations, cytotoxicity correlated well with the physicochemical softness parameter sigma-p (r = 0.93). Correlation coefficients between the in vitro toxicity of cationic metals and their in vivo LC-50 data varied for different fish species, with r values from r = 0.64 to r = 0.92. The in vitro cytotoxicity of anionic metal complexes was not related with their acute in vivo toxicity.
#|Selegean, James P. ; Heidtke, Thomas M.  The Use of Dreissena polymorpha (the Zebra Mussel) as a Biofilter of Municipal Wastewater With Special Reference to Bioaccumulation of Heavy Metals.  Proceedings:  Fourth International Zebra Mussel Conference, Madison, WI.  March 7-10, 1994, p 625-632.  This research investigated the use of the zebra mussel, Dreissena polymorpha, as a biofilter of municipal sewage. In addition, the mussel's ability to remove heavy metals from wastewater through bioaccumulation was also investigated. Three experiments were conducted in which approximately 2500 mussels were placed in a flow-through tank while various sewage streams were applied. The sewage streams examined were raw sewage, primary effluent and secondary effluent. The sewage was monitored for removal of suspended solids, chemical oxygen demand and total phosphate.  The bioaccumulation of six heavy metals was investigated including iron, chromium, cadmium, nickel, zinc and lead. Results indicate that the zebra mussel is an effective biofilter of municipal sewage.
#|Shafer, M M ; Overdier, J T ; Armstong, D E.  Removal, partitioning, and fate of silver and other metals in wastewater treatment plants and effluent-receiving streams.  ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY vol. 17, no. 4, pp. 630-641, 1998.  We investigated the removal of silver in five publicly owned treatment works (POTWs) and the fate of Ag in effluent receiving streams. Comparisons were made to several other metals. Silver was removed efficiently (>94%) in all POTWs. The percentage of total Ag removed was independent of the influent Ag concentration, while the concentration of Ag in effluents was directly related to influent concentration. A good correlation (r super(2) = 0.77) between metal removal (%) and partition coefficient (K sub(d)) indicated that differences among metals in removal efficiency were controlled mainly by metal partitioning (sorption) to particles removed by settling and/or filtration. A large fraction (19-53%) of Ag in the filterable (<1.0- mu m) fraction of POTW effluents was associated with submicron particles or colloids (>0.05 mu m), and the percentage filterable Ag was directly related to DOC concentration (r super(2) = 0.96). Effluent Ag concentrations (0.06-2.6 mu g/L) were several orders of magnitude higher that typical "background" stream levels (1-2 ng/L), but Ag discharged to streams was rapidly dissipated by dilution and incorporation into stream sediments.
#|Shafer, M M ; Overdier, J T ; Babiarz, C L ; Hoffman, S R ; Armstrong, D E.  Preliminary observations on the distribution of Ag and other trace metals in the colloidal size fractions of streams and POTW effluents.  Andren, A W ; Bober, T W  (eds ).  1996.  Int. Conf. Transport, Fate and Effects of Silver in the Environment.  Madison, WI: 1996 Aug 25-28.  The significance of colloidal bound trace metals to the total load of metals in surface waters and effluents is being studied through the use of trace metal clean micro-filtration and ultra-filtration techniques. The trace metals (V, Cr, Mn, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Mo, Ag, Cd, Tl, Pb, U) and indicators of major associative phases (DOC, Al, Fe, SPM), in particles (>1.0 mu m) sub-micron particles (0.1/0.2 - 1 mu m), large colloids (100K - 0.2 mu m), small colloids (10K - 100K), and "dissolved" fractions (<10K) are isolated in the field and metals quantified by ICP-MS. The six ackground surface water systems under study encompass a range of watershed geochemistries - including those dominated by wetlands, glacio-lacustrine clays, and highly permeable sands.
#|Shafer, MM; Overdier, JT; Hurley, JP; Armstrong, D; Webb, D. The influence of dissolved organic carbon, suspended particulates, and hydrology on the concentration, partitioning and variability of trace metals in two contrasting Wisconsin watersheds. CHEMICAL GEOLOGY, 1997, V136, N1-2 (MAR 27), P71-97.  Factors controlling the levels and forms of trace metals in streams, and transport from watersheds into streams, are poorly understood. We determined levels of filtrable (<0.4 mu m) and particulate Al, Cd, Cu, Pb, and Zn in rivers draining two contrasting watersheds in eastern Wisconsin. Both are developed on glaciated terrain, but the North Branch Milwaukee watershed (agricultural) is characterized by gently sloping uplands with thick silt loam soils, while the Wolf River (forested) has peat loam soils on hilly terrain. Watershed differences resulted in higher mean dissolved organic carbon (DOC) concentrations under baseflow conditions in the Wolf River (7 mg l(-1)) than in the Milwaukee River (4 mg l(-1)), but higher suspended particulate matter (SPM) levels in the Milwaukee (18 vs. 2 mg l(-1)). Mean filtrable trace metal concentrations (ng l(-1)) under baseflow conditions were similar in the Milwaukee and Wolf rivers (Al = 4.0 and 5.8; Cd = 4.2 and 3.2; Cu = 660 and 200; Pb = 56 and 53; Zn = 340 and 240), but particulate metal levels (ng l(-1)) were higher in the Milwaukee (Al = 230 vs. 16; Cd = 14 vs. 0.8; Cu = 736 vs. 90; Pb = 750 vs. 30; Zn = 2290 vs. 180). Filtrable metal concentrations exhibited low variability (relative standard deviation) under baseflow (Milwaukee: 5-20% Cu, Pb, Zn; 20-40% Al, Cd-Wolf: 10-35% Cu, Pb, Zn; 30-60% Al, Cd), while variability in particulate metal concentrations was somewhat higher (18-73%). During events (spring melt, storms), concentrations increased 1- to 5-fold for filtrable metals and 1- to 17-fold for particulate metals. Differences between watersheds and within-watershed responses to events were related in part to SPM (particulate metals) and DOC (filtrable metals) levels in the rivers and their associated influences on metal partitioning. In the Milwaukee River (higher SPM and lower DOG), particulate metal phases were more dominant (range among the five metals in mean % particulate = 47-98% vs. 24-74% for the Wolf. Partitioning (K-d) to SPM followed the order Pb > Zn > Cd > Cu, whereas relationships to DOC indicated essentially the reverse order for metal binding to DOG. SPM was a good predictor of particulate metal levels, especially in the Milwaukee River (> 94% of variance in particulate Cd, Pb, and Zn was accounted for, vs. 44-69% in Wolf River). While DOC was able to account for a significant portion of the variation in certain filtrable metal levels (r(2) = 0.52-0.65), other metals showed poorer correlations, probably due to variability in the composition of DOC and SPM and to variability in the forms of metal (aqueous complexes, colloid-bound) in the filtrable fraction.
#|Sharma-KD; Murthy-JSR .  Ephemeral flow modelling in arid regions. Journal of Arid Environments. 1996, 33: 2, 161-178.
#|Shaw, J R ; Birge, W J ; Hogstrand, C.  Parameters that influence silver toxicity: Ammonia and salinity.  Andren, A W ; Bober, T W  (eds ).  REPORT NUMBER:  WISCU-W-96-001.  pp. 155-160, 1996.  Int. Conf. Transport, Fate and Effects of Silver in the Environment.  Madison, WI (USA), 1996 Aug 25-28.  The toxicity and physiological effects of silver differ dramatically for freshwater and marine fish (Wood, 1995  Ferguson et al., 1995,1996  Hogstrand et al. 1995, 1996). While most investigations have focused on freshwater systems, recent studies have started to pinpoint mechanisms and define silver toxicity for a few marine fish (e.g. rainbow trout, starry flounder, tidepool sculpin). Also, these investigations have illuminated several factors that influence the effects of silver. This study parallels these efforts and more closely investigates two such parameters, ammonia and salinity.
#|Sherry,-J.; Scott,-B.; Dutka,-B.  Use of various acute, sublethal and early life-stage tests to evaluate the toxicity of refinery effluents. ENVIRON.-TOXICOL.-CHEM. 1997 vol. 16, no. 11, pp. 2249-2257.  The toxicities of effluents from three Ontario, Canada, refineries were assessed with microbes, plants, invertebrates, and fish. Acute toxicity was assessed by the Microtox super(TM) test, an assay based on electron transport activity in submitochondrial particles, and Daphnia magna (water flea) and Oncorhynchus mykiss (rainbow trout, 96-h exposure) bioassays. Short-term toxic effects were measured with bioassays of growth and survival of Pimephales promelas (fathead minnow) larvae; survival and reproduction of Ceriodaphnia dubia (water flea); growth of Selenastrum capricornutum (alga); growth of Lemna minor (aquatic plant); germination of Lactuca sativa (nonaquatic plant); survival, growth, and maturation of Panagrellus redivivus (nematode); and genotoxicity in the SOS-Chromotest. Only the Microtox test and the submitochondrial particle test detected acute toxicity in the effluent samples. Reduced survival and sublethal responses were caused by some effluents, but not all effluents were toxic, and none caused a response in all of the tests applied. The results suggest that the effluent treatment systems used at Ontario refineries have largely eliminated acute toxicity to the organisms in our test battery. Although reduced survival and sublethal effects were detected in some of the effluents, the effects were minor. Some of the tests provided evidence, albeit weak, of variations in the responses of the test organisms to a temporal series of effluent samples. Not unexpectedly, there were also minor differences in the responses of the tests to effluents from the three refineries. The fathead minnow test seems to be a sensitive indicator of the sublethal toxicity of Ontario refinery effluents.
#|SHINE J P, RYAN D K, & FORD T E. (1998). Annual cycle of heavy metals in a tropical lake : Lake Chapala, Mexico.  Journal of environmental science and health. Part A, Environmental science and engineering, Vol. 33: 23-43.  Dissolved concentrations of seven metals (As, Pb, Cd, Zn, Ni, Cu, Cr) were determined monthly at six sampling stations in Lake Chapala, Mexico, between November 1990 and December 1991. Lake Chapala is the largest lake in Mexico, and serves as a source of drinking water and an economically important fishery and center for tourism. Historically, Lake Chapala has received poorly characterized domestic, industrial, and agricultural wastes. As, Cd, Pb, Cr, and Zn displayed peaks in concentration during the period before the rainy season due, presumably, to evaporation. Comparison of inflow and outflow concentrations also indicated a direct source of As to the lake. During this period, the concentrations of both Cd and Pb were above the freshwater chronic criteria values recommended by the United States Environmental Protection Agency for protection of aquatic ecosystem health. The metals As, Cr, Zn, Ni, and Cu also showed concentration peaks following the rainy season in August and September, perhaps due to increased input from the watershed or resuspension of metals in the lake driven by changes in water circulation patterns. Concentration data for the lake also suggested that a portion of the inflow water does not immediately mix with the lake as a whole, creating spatial gradients depending on the concentration of metals in the source water. Determination of metals in water hyacinth (Eichornia crassipes) plant tissue showed large partitioning of metals into root tissue, indicating that plants may be an important temporal sink for metals. In addition, copper and zinc accumulated to very high levels in Tilapia and Carp livers, indicating that some of the metal contaminants are entering the food chain.
#|Shireman J V; Cichra C E.  Evaluation of aquaculture effluents.  Aquaculture 123 (1-2). 1994.  55-68.  Water quality data were collected from six Department of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences (FAS) aquaculture ponds at the University of Florida and two ponds at each of four private farms. Effluents from four of the FAYS channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) ponds were treated by pumping the water into a retention pond or vegetated ditch. At the stocking rates used, little relationship existed between harvest densities (kg cntdot ha-1) and water quality parameters; however, harvest densities were lower than in most intensive production systems.  Total suspended solids (TSS) were elevated by seining; however, if pumping did not occur immediately after seining, the TSS settled prior to pumping.  Passing water through a retention pond or vegetated ditch reduced TSS.  Mean water quality parameters in channel catfish fingerling ponds and sportfish (largemouth bass, Micropterus salmoides; bluegill, Lepomis macrochirus; redear sunfish, L. microlophus) fingerling ponds were generally lower than in the food-size channel catfish ponds except for dissolved oxygen. This study was conductedto develop a water quality database from a variety of soil types and cultured species. These data along with data from one catfish farm located in Northwest Florida were evaluated to determine if effluents from these farms meet Florida water quality standards. Using these data, the Florida Department of Environmental Regulation (FDER) developed a general permit for fish farms. Sufficient data from ornamental fish farms were available, and therefore ornamental fish farms were included in the permit without additional data collection.
#|Shivkumar K; Biksham G.  Statistical approach for the assessment of water pollution around industrial areas: A case study from Patancheru, Medak District, India.  Environmental Monitoring and Assessment  36 (3):p229-249 1995.  Industrial effluents, surface waters, and subsurface groundwaters were sampled in and around the Patancheru industrial area of Nakkavagu basin, India and analysed. The parameters such as TDS, BOD, COD, and abundances of elements such as Cu, As, Se, F, Fe, are 5 to 10 times more than the permissible limits. These pollutants are contaminating the groundwaters at a faster rate than anticipated. A statistical approach is used to express the magnitude of pollution. Initially, correlation matrices of the major parameters and trace elements followed by factor analysis on them are presented to quantify the aspect of pollution.  Factor I explaining 43.6% variance has positive loadings for variables TDS, BOD, COD, As, Cu, Se, SO-4-2, and Cr, suggesting the factor is interpreted to be the 'Pollution or Migration of Pollutants'. The same variables have negative loadings in the subsurface groundwaters suggesting that Factor 1 for these samples is a 'the deposition or precipitation' phenomenon. With a critical look at the Factor 1 of both surface and subsurface water samples it is indicated that pollutants migrated and became deposited in the environs of the Patancheru industrial area.
#|Simon,-T.P.; Emery,-E.B. Modification and assessment of an index of biotic integrity to quantify water resource quality in great rivers. Conference on Sustaining the Ecological Integrity of Large Floodplain Rivers: Application of Ecological Knowledge to River Management, La Crosse, WI. 12-15 Jul 1994.  REGUL.-RIVERS-RES.-MANAGE. 1995  vol. 11, no. 3-4, pp. 283-298.  A measure of stream quality, the index of biotic integrity (IBI), was adapted to great rivers (>3226 km super(2)) and calibrated using a variety of spatial scales. Fish fauna was sampled at 60 localities within 15 impoundments of the Ohio River drainage, eastern Ohio, West Virginia and Pennsylvania, with boat electroshocker methods during the summers and autumns of 1990-1993 to provide biological information for the IBI. Significant correlation was not found between ecoregion or differing reservoirs; however, the IBI was sensitive to differences in land use and variable industrial and municipal loadings. Species richness, the percentage large river faunal group, the proportion of round-bodied sucker species, the number of centrarchid species, the number of sensitive taxa and the proportion of simple lithophilous spawning species showed the greatest change between riverine and lacustrine habitats within an impoundment. The percentage large river faunal group metric was not significantly different between riverine, transitional and lacustrine habitats; however, the metric reflected significant differences when evaluated with habitat information. The number of centrarchid species was higher in lacustrine habitats, whereas round-bodied sucker species were highest in transitional habitats. The inherent variation of proportional metrics was significantly reduced with the removal of gizzard shad. This modification of the IBI will enhance assessment sensitivity over the original approach designed for wadable streams and rivers.
#|Simon-T.P.  Development of Index of Biotic Integrity Expectations for the Ecoregions of Indiana II. Huron-Erie Lake Plain (December 1994).  Environmental Protection Agency, Chicago, IL. Region V.  PB98148828XSP . 164p. See also PB93-149383. Prepared in cooperation with Indiana Dept. of Environmental Management, Indianapolis. Water Quality Surveillance and Standards Branch.  Order this product from NTIS by: phone at 1-800-553-NTIS (U.S. customers); (703)605-6000 (other countries); fax at (703)605-6900; and email at orders ntis.fedworld.gov.  The objective of thsi study was to evaluate the biological integrity of Indiana water resources based on least impacted reference conditions for establishing baseline conditions. This technical report includes specific Index of Biotic Integrity criteria including the development of metrics and maximum species richness lines, to delineate areas of least disturbance in the Huron-Erie Lake Plain.
#|Sims, J. T.; Simard, R. R.; Joern, B. C.  Phosphorus Loss in Agricultural Drainage: Historical Perspective and Current Research. J Environ Qual v27, n2, p277(17) Mar-Apr 98.  Phosphorus leaching and subsequent loss of P via subsurface runoff have, until recently, rarely been considered a significant transport process for agricultural P to surface waters. Current research in this area is summarized, focusing on P export in artificial drainage systems. The studies examined provide specific examples of the importance of artificial land drainage to nonpoint-source pollution of surface waters by agricultural P. Specific recommendations are proposed to further research in this area, especially in terms of establishing criteria for identifying areas that are exporting environmentally significant quantities of P via subsurface runoff, improving soil testing and characterization methods, more accurately modeling the hydrologic pathways operative in subsurface runoff, and enhancing our understanding of remedial measures that can be used to reduce P losses via subsurface runoff.
#|Singleton, H. J. (1993). Water quality criteria for copper.  Victoria, BC Environment, Water Management Division. Victoria.  State of water quality of Quamichan Lake, 1988-95 -- 2d draft.  Second edition.  1996. British Columbia. Water Quality Branch, Victoria.; Environment Canada.  Quamichan Lake is located on southern Vancouver Island near Duncan, and has a watershed of 16.3 square kilometres in area. This report assesses five years of water quality data and 21 years (1973-95) of faecal coliform sampling. The report includes comparison of the state of the lake's water quality with Ministry of Environment, Lands & Parks Approved and Working Criteria for Water Quality with respect to such parameters as total phosphorus, nitrogen, calcium, faecal coliform, true colour, aluminium, copper, silica, residue, conductivity, turbidity, and pH. Recommendations are made for water quality management of the lake. The actual data are summarised in tables and also presented as box plots.
#|Skiff, D.P. Outfall K-018 TRC investigation. Final report. Department of Energy, Washington, DC.  Contract Number: WSRC-TR-94-017, Contract AC09-89SR18035.  NTIS/DE94007188, 24p. TD3:  During 1993, 7 different samples taken at Reactor Outfall K-018 for Total Residual Chlorine exceeded the permitted requirement for the outfall of < 0.1 mg/L. Following the second exceedance, a Mitigation Action Plan was issued to investigate and identify the cause of the exceedances. The following potential causes were identified:  (1) unauthorized/unknown operational discharge; (2) upstream industrial discharge to the Savannah River prior to SRS usage; (3) sanitary waste treatment plant discharge; (4) sampling methodology; (5) naturally occurring river water interference. Of these possibilities, it was determined that naturally occurring river water interference was the most likely cause and an in-depth sampling program, outlined in a Program Action Plan, was initiated to complete the investigation. The investigation determined that oxidized manganese present in the river water prior to usage within K-Area causes a false high reading for Total Residual Chlorine.  It is this presence of the manganese interference, not operational discharge, that caused the exceedances at Outfall K-018.
#|Skurla, S.J.  Plan and schedule for disposition and regulatory compliance for all remaining Miscellaneous Streams.  Department of Energy, Richland, WA. Richland Operations Office.  Contract Number: DOE-RL-93-94. NTIS/DE94006997, 23p.  TD3:  On December 23, 1991, the US Department of Energy, Richland Operations Office (RL) and the Washington State Department of Ecology (Ecology) agreed to adhere to the provisions of Department of Ecology Consent Order No. DE 91NM-177 (Consent Order) (Ecology and USDOE, 1991).  The Consent Order lists regulatory milestones for liquid effluent streams at the Hanford Site to comply with the permitting requirements of Washington Administrative Code 173-216 or 173-218 where applicable (WAC 173-216/218).  Hanford Site liquid effluent stream discharging to the soil column have been categorized in the Consent Order as follows: Phase I Streams; Phase II Streams; Miscellaneous Streams. Phase I and Phase II Streams are identified in two RL reports:  ''Plan and Schedule to Discontinue Disposal of Contaminated Liquids into the Soil Column at the Hanford Site'' (DOE-RL 1987), and ''Annual Status of the Report of the Plan and Schedule to Discontinue Disposal of Contaminated Liquids into the Soil Column at the Hanford Site'' (Stordeur 1988). Miscellaneous Streams are those liquid effluent streams discharged to the ground that are not categorized as Phase I or Phase II Streams.  Miscellaneous Streams discharging to the soil column at the Hanford Site are subject to the requirements of several milestones identified in the Consent Order. This document provides a plan and schedule for the disposition of Miscellaneous Streams to satisfy one of the Miscellaneous Stream Consent Order requirements.  The disposition process for the Miscellaneous Streams as developed for this milestone is facilitated using a decision tree format. The logic diagram and corresponding analysis for determining appropriate disposition of these streams is presented in this document.
#|Sloof, W ; de Kruijf, H  (eds ). The assessment of industrial effluent toxicity using aquatic microorganisms, invertebrates and fish.  PROCEEDINGS OF THE SECOND EUROPEAN CONFERENCE ON ECOTOXICOLOGY. Amsterdam (Netherlands): 1992 May 11-15.  SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT vol. Suppl. Pts. 1-2 pp. 1129-1141, 1993.  Traditionally in the United Kingdom, the control of industrial effluent discharges into the aquatic environment has been based primarily upon physical and chemical parameters applied with reference to the aquatic toxicity of key effluent components (for example, ammonia and pH). Influenced by international developments, however, there is a trend in Europe to apply whole-effluent toxicity tests to monitor and control industrial effluent discharges. The relative sensitivity and utility of toxicity tests for providing acute and sublethal toxicity data on industrial effluentswere therefore investigated. Toxicity tests were carried out on effluent samples taken from a variety of industrial sites that included liquid effluent discharges to freshwater and to marine/estuarine waters. Comparisons were made between the Microtox registered test and toxicity tests with fish (Oncorhynchus mykiss, leuronectes platessa, Scophthalmus maximus, Pimephales promelas and Cyprinodon variegatus) and a marine crustacean (Tisbe battagliai).
#|Smith JP; Tyler AO; Sabeur ZA.  Ecotoxicological assessment of produced waters in Indonesia.  ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND WATER QUALITY, 1998, V13, N4 (NOV), P323-336.  JOHN WILEY & SONS INC, 605 THIRD AVE, NEW YORK.  An ecotoxicological study aimed at deriving practical methods for assessing the impact of complex discharges from offshore facilities has been conducted. The study focused on large volume discharges in the West Java Sea, indonesia, which exhibit limited mixing in the receiving waters and can form ''ponds'' of elevated concentration as a result of variable hydrodynamic flows. A number of experiments and analyses have been conducted aimed at characterizing the effluent during the process of degradation. This information has been used to determine likely body residues in test organisms used in 96-h exposure toxicity tests. The data from the toxicity tests have been correlated with the predicted body residues to provide an approach [whole effluent toxicity (WET)] to evaluate likely mortality arising from a complex mixed effluent. This semiempirical approach has been used in an integrated physicochemical transport model where time-varying exposure concentrations can be simulated and the resulting uptake into biota modelled. This permits direct assessment of the risk posed by discharges.The toxicity test results show that, at concentrations of effluent commonly found in the receiving waters, some mortality may be encountered albeit at low levels, probably not exceeding 5%. These results are confirmed by the modelled mortality using the WET approach. The groups of compounds most likely to be contributing to the toxicity include the PAHs and phenols. Contributions from each group vary between different characterized effluents from different facilities.
#|Smith, David B.; Plant, Jane A.; Garrett, Robert G.; Darnley, Arthur G.  A global geochemical reference network; the first step toward establishing global geochemical baselines for environmental management.  Geological Society of America, 1997 annual meeting. Salt Lake City, UT, United States, Oct. 20-23, 1997.  Geological Society of America (GSA), Boulder, CO, United States.  Abstracts with Programs - Geological Society of America vol. 29 no. 6; p. 435, 1997.  Public policy concerning the environment should use science based on comprehensive, standardized data. Such data concerning the chemical composition of the Earth's surface do not exist, and presently available data are substantially incomplete and internally inconsistent. The chemical composition of surface materials is a fundamental factor affecting agriculture, forestry, and human and animal health, and element abundances can vary by several orders of magnitude as the result of natural processes and human influences. An expanding world population and increasing use of resources of all kinds makes it important to establish geochemical baselines against which changes may be recognized and measured.A working group on Global Geochemical Baselines has been established by the International Union of Geological Sciences to seek ways of implementing the recommendations prepared by the International Geochemical Mapping Project (International Geological Correlation Program Projects 259 and 360) concerning the need for and the design of a global geochemical database. Wide-spaced sampling according to a global geochemical reference network (analogous to a geodetic grid), based on 160X160 km equal area cells, is recommended as the best method of normalizing national and regional datasets and enabling the construction of a worldwide geochemical database. Approximately 5000 cells cover the Earth's land surface. A variety of media (regolith, drainage sediments, surface humus, surface water, if present) would be sampled for chemical analysis at a minimum of five sites in each 160X160 km cell. Geochemical data from the sampling points of the reference network can be integrated to develop reference surfaces which then define the geochemical baseline for a given element in a specific medium. There are comprehensive protocols concerning site selection, sample collection and preparation, analytical methodology, and data management procedures because
#|SMITH, JAMES FIELDING. DECENTRALIZATION: A CASE STUDY IN STATE WASTEWATER DISCHARGE PERMIT PROGRAMMING.  PH.D. 1995.  VIRGINIA POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE AND STATE UNIVERSITY.  Using the state agencies that regulate wastewater discharges to surface waters, this quantitative study examined the validity of three theories about the effects of decentralization on organizational outcomes. It also used qualitative analysis to probe the internal adjustments to optimize outcomes. Theoretical advantages to decentralized organizations can be summarized as greater effectiveness or greater efficiency. Effectiveness here is the rate of compliance with legal and permit requirements for dischargers adjusted for enforcement actions.  The model used consists of decentralization independent variables, exogenous independent variables (e.g., population, funding), efficiency dependent variables, and compliance (or effectiveness) dependent variables. Model calibration applied principal component analysis and multiple regression analysis to questionnaire and other data for FY93 from 39 states. Key intervening variables--information costs, innovation, and strategic planning--characteristic of the theoretical effects of decentralization received special attention. Case studies based on interviews and document studies in five states illustrate key points. The large survey sample (78%) of the 50 states reduced threats to external validity. A significant relationship to decentralization was found for major permit processing time and percentage of expired permits. When controlled for exogenous variables, no compliance common factor related to decentralization, but medium-term compliance unit-cost did. Time is essential to all compliance common factors. Innovation, information cost, and strategic planning were not found to be intervening variables. Highly decentralized states were found to be trending towards increased centralization, and vice versa. All states make internal adjustments to optimize their programs, and some adjustments are powerful enough to make highly dissimilar organizations converge; strong basin planning is one such adjustment.  Neither decentralization nor centralization is automatically the best way to organize a complex system. Devolution, where transfer of functions goes with significant delegation of authority to autonomous local units, would probably give superior environmental, economic, and administrative outcomes over a uniform approach.
#|Smith, Richard A., Richard B. Alexander, and Kenneth J. Lanfear.  Stream Water Quality in the Conterminous United States -- Status and Trends of Selected Indicators During the 1980's.  National Water Summary 1990-91 -- Stream Water Quality, U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2400.
#|Specht, W. L. ; Harmon, S. M. Evaluation of 'Daphnia ambigua' for Routine Aquatic Toxicity Testing at the Savannah River Site. South Carolina Univ., Columbia.; Department of Energy, Washington, DC. Report No.: WSRC-TR-97-00311. Sep 97, 140p.  Department of Energy, Washington, DC. Contract No.: DE-AC09-89SR18035.  Short-term whole effluent toxicity testing, which is currently a requirement of the U.S. EPA's National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES), commonly uses the cladoceran species Ceriodaphnia dubia. Despite the advantages to using a common test species to model the toxic effects of effluents, it could be argued that toxicity test results would be more meaningful if a wider variety of test organisms were commonly used. This study addressed the substitution of C. dubia with an indigenous cladoceran species, Daphnia ambigua for routine regulatory testing at SRS. This investigation determined that D.ambigua could be laboratory cultured with only minimal changes to established regulatory protocol and that the life-cycle characteristics of this species were conducive to traditional actue and chronic aquatic toxicity test methods.
#|Spence, L E. Alaska's instream flow program.  RIVERS vol. 5, no. 3, pp. 222-226, 1995.  This Alaska Department of Fish and Game (ADF&G) Fishery Data Series report summarizes research completed to identify instream flow needs from 1 July 1994 to 30 June 1995 and discusses the current status of instream flow protection in Alaska. Fishery Data Series publications are edited, peer-reviewed project reports established in 1987 and are intended for fishery and other technical professionals. This is the ninth report in the series addressing the Alaska instream flow program. The report describes the acquisition of instream flow water rights (called reservations) in Alaska as being authorized by amendments to the Alaska Water Use Act in 1980 (Alaska Statute 46.15) following a recognition by the legislature that instream flows were important to the social and economic well-being of Alaska citizens. The amendments (AS 46.15.030 and AS 46.15.145) allow private individuals and local, state, and federal agencies to acquire "water reservations" for instream flow purposes for (1) protection of fish and wildlife habitat, migration, and propagation (2) recreation and parks (3) navigation and transportation and (4) sanitation and water quality. An instream flow reservation is defined as the rate of flow in a river the volume of water in a lake or as a related physical attribute, such as water depth. Instream flow reservations can only be acquired by application to, and approval from, the Alaska Department of Natural Resources (DNR), Division of Mining and Water Management. Although authority for acquiring instream flows was received in 1980, administrative regulations and forms to implement the instream flow program were not adopted by the DNR until fall 1983.
#|Spindler, Patti. Using ecoregions for explaining macroinvertebrate community distribution among reference sites in Arizona, 1992 : final report.  [Phoenix, AZ] : Hydrologic Support and Assessment Section, Water Quality Division, Arizona, Dept. of Environmental Quality, 1996. The Survey, 1994.  Map.
#|Sprague, J.B. Factors that modify toxicity.  In G.M. Rand, ed., Fundamentals of Aquatic Toxicology, 2nd ed. Taylor and Francis, Washington, DC., pp. 1012-1051.
#|Stauber, J L.  Toxicity testing using marine and freshwater unicellular algae.  AUSTRALAS. J. ECOTOXICOL. vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 15-24, 1995.  Unicellular algae, at the base of most aquatic food chains, are particularly sensitive to a wide range of pollutants and are therefore an important part of a battery of toxicity tests for hazard assessment and aquatic environment protection. The use of bioassays for toxicity assessment, based on growth inhibition in algae, is described and compared to alternative measures of toxic stress in algae, such as super(14)C uptake, respiration, ATP and enzyme activity. Factors affecting toxicity, including the test medium, inoculum pretreatment, incubation conditions and test duration are reviewed. Selection of sensitive and ecologically-relevant test species for both freshwater and marine toxicity testing is essential. Bioassays using the freshwater green alga Chlorella protothecoides and a local species of the marine diatom Nitzschia closterium were developed and their sensitivity to metals, chlorate and chlorophenolic compounds were compared to standard overseas test species. The bioassay using Chlorella protothecoides was applied to assessing the bioavailability and toxicity of copper in the Fly River System, Papua New Guinea. The marine algal assay with Nitzschia closterium was used to test the toxicity of a complex pulp mill effluent and its high molecular weight fraction, and compared to bioassays with bacteria, seaweed and fish larvae.
#|Stephan, C. E. Derivation of Proposed Human Healthand Wildlife Bioaccumulation Factors for the Great Lakes Initiative. (Draft rept). Mar 93.  122p.  See also PB93-154664. Order this product from NTIS by: phone at 1-800-553-NTIS (U.S. customers); (703)605-6000 (other countries); fax at (703)321-8547; and email at orders@ntis.fedworld.gov. The publication is divided into two sections: Comparison of Proposed Human Healthand Bioaccumulation Factors (HHBAFs) for the Great Lakes Initiative (GLI) and Derivation of Proposed Human Health and Wildlife Bioaccumulation Factors for the Great Lakes Initiative.
#|Stewart Arthur J; Konetsky Belinda K.  Longevity and reproduction of Ceriodaphnia dubia in receiving waters.  Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 17 (6):p1165-1171 June, 1998.  Seven-day tests with Ceriodaphnia dubia are commonly used to estimate toxicity of effluents or receiving waters but can sometimes yield no toxicity outcomes even if pollutants are present. We conducted two sets of full life-cycle tests with C. dubia to (1) determine whether tests with longer exposure periods to low concentrations of contaminants in ambient water might reveal evidence of toxicity that could not be discerned from 7-d tests and (2) determine the relative importance of water quality versus food as factors influencing C. dubia longevity and reproduction. In the first set of tests, C. dubia was reared in diluted mineral water (a negative control), water from a stream impacted by coal fly-ash, or water from a retention basin containing sediments contaminated with mercury, other metals, and polychlorinated biphenyls. The second set of tests used water from the retention basin only. Before testing, though, water in the second set of tests was either filtered or not filtered, and food was either added or not added. Ceriodaphnia dubia longevity and reproduction did not differ much among the three water types in the first set of tests, but both longevity and reproduction were strongly affected by the filtering and food-addition treatments in the second set of tests. Thus, C. dubia appeared to be relatively insensitive to general water quality factors but sensitive to food-related factors. In five of the six full life-cycle tests, lifetime reproduction by C. dubia could not be reliably predicted from reproduction data from the first 7 d of testing (R2 < 0.35, by regression analysis). The increase in predictability of lifetime reproduction of C. dubia as a function of test duration also differed among water types in the first set of tests and among treatments in the second set of tests. Thus, it may not be possible to reliably extrapolate the results of 7-d tests with C. dubia to longer time scales.
#|Stewart, A J. Ambient bioassays for assessing water-quality conditions in receiving streams.  ECOTOXICOLOGY vol. 5, no. 6, pp. 377-393, 1996.  The purpose of this paper is to show how short-term laboratory tests, conducted according to US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) procedures, can be used effectively to assess water-quality conditions in streams or rivers that receive pollutants from industry or municipal or agricultural areas. Standardized, short-term tests with fish, aquatic invertebrates or algae are commonly used to estimate the acute or chronic toxicity of wastewaters this is referred to as effluent testing. The methods used for testing effluents also can be used to assess water quality in receiving streams: in this application, the procedures are referred to as ambient testing. Despite similarity in methods, the major objective of effluent testing differs importantly from that of ambient testing. In effluent testing, the key objective is to determine how toxic an effluent is in ambient testing, the main objective usually is that of determining if the water at a site is toxic. This difference is subtle but very important: it shapes the strategy for cost-effective ambient testing, and determines the framework for effective statistical analysis and interpretation of ambient toxicity test results. Specific case-study examples are provided demonstrating the kinds of information that can be extracted from ambient toxicity testing by use of different statistical methods, including analysis of variance, contingency-table analysis, and two types of multivariate procedures (principal components analysis and logistic regression). Examples also are given supporting the idea that an effective ambient testing programme should be long-term, and contain a diagnostic-testing component analogous to the toxicity identification procedures used to supplement effluent-testing programmes.
#|Stewart, A. J.  Toxicity testing strategies for assessing water-quality conditions in receiving streams.  Department of Energy, Washington, DC.  Report No.: CONF-9406323-2 l.  1994  29p.  Annual workshop on industrial ecology (3rd), Wood Hole, MA (United States), 25-26 Jun 1994. This paper explores the use of short-term, EPA-approved laboratory toxicity tests for assessing water-quality conditions in streams and rivers. Strategies for the cost-effective application of such tests for long-term monitoring objectives are considered in the context of logistic constraints and statistical design. A subtle but important difference in objectives for effluent versus ambient testing is this: in effluent testing for regulatory purposes, a key objective is to determine how toxic an effluent is; in ambient testing, the main objective usually is that of determining if the water at a site is toxic. This difference shapes the strategy for cost-effective ambient testing and determines the framework for effective statistical analysis and interpretation of ambient toxicity test results.  Recommendations derived as ''lessons learned'' from large-scale ambient toxicity testing programs for receiving streams at Department of Energy (DOE) facilities include: (1) testing more frequently with one species (preferably Ceriodaphnia) generally is more effective, in terms of information gained per dollar spent, than testing less frequently with two or more species; (2) use five or more sites per test period, plus two or more reference sites, whenever possible; (3) use four to six test periods per year; and (4) use diagnostic testing to supplement the ambient-testing program.  Various laboratory and in situ methods for environmental assessment are now under development, but these methodsprobably will not gain acceptance for use in regulatory situations for many years.  Rapid growth in need for ecological risk assessments outstrips the rate at which new test procedures are approved for regulatory purposes.  Thus, laboratory tests for estimating possible environmental impacts of toxic or disruptive pollutants are likely to be used more frequently, not less frequently, during the next decade.
#|Stewart-A.J. Ambient bioassays for assessing water-quality conditions in receiving streams. CS:  Performer: Oak Ridge National Lab., TN.  Department of Energy, Washington, DC. RD:  1995. 28p. Annual workshop on industrial ecology (3rd), Wood Hole, MA (United States), 25-26 Jun 1994. Sponsored by Department of Energy, Washington, DC.  Short-term EPA-approved tests with fish, aquatic invertebrates or algae can be used to estimate the acute or chronic toxicity of effluent and can be used to assess water-quality conditions in streams or rivers that receive pollutants from industry or municipal or agricultural areas. These methods also can be used to assess water quality in receiving streams. However, in effluent testing, the key objective is to determine how toxic an effluent is; in ambient testing, the main objective usually is that of determining if the water at a site is toxic. Specific case-study examples are provided demonstrating the kinds of information that can be extracted from ambient toxicity testing by use of different statistical methods. Examples also are given supporting the idea that an effective ambient testing program should be long-term, and contain a diagnostic-testing component analogous to the toxicity identification procedures used to supplement effluent-testing programs. Recommendations derived as 'lessons learned' from large-scale ambient toxicity testing programs for receiving streams at Department of Energy facilities include: (1) testing more frequently with one species (preferably Ceriodaphnia) generally is more effective than testing less frequently with two or more species; (2) use five or more sites per test period, plus two or more reference sites, whenever possible; (3) use four to six test periods per year; and (4) use diagnostic testing to supplement the ambient-testing program. Rapid growth in need for ecological risk assessments outstrips the rate at which new test procedures are approved for regulatory purposes. Laboratory tests for estimating possible environmental impacts of toxic or disruptive pollutants are likely to be used more frequently, not less frequently, during the next decade.
#|Strategy for Improving Water-Quality Monitoring in the United States. Final Report of the Intergovernmental Task Force on Monitoring Water Quality. Technical Appendixes. PB96143037XSP.  Intergovernmental Task Force on Monitoring Water Quality, Washington, DC. Water Information Coordination Program.  Geological Survey, Reston, VA. Office of Water Data Coordination. Feb 95. 122p. Also available from Supt. of Docs. See also PB96-143045. Sponsored by Geological Survey, Reston, VA. Office of Water Data Coordination. Glossary of Water-Quality-Monitoring Terms; Framework for a Water-Quality-Monitoring Program; Terms of Reference--National Water-Quality Monitoring Council; Indicators for Meeting Management Objectives--Summary and Rationale Matrices; Indicator-Selection Criteria; Ecoregions, Reference Conditions, and Index Calibration; Multimetric Approach for Describing Ecological Conditions; Terms of Reference--Interagency Methods and Data Comparability Board; Data Comparability and Performance-Based Methods Policy Paper-- Comparability of Data-Collection Methods; Target Audiences, Monitoring Objectives, and Format Considerations for Reporting Water-Quality Information; Annotated Bibliography of Selected Outstanding Water-Quality Reports; Ground-Water-Quality-Monitoring Framework; Data-Elements Glossary; Evaluation of a Performance-Based Methods System Approach to Field and Prelaboratory Methods; and Performance-Based Methods System for Biological Collection Methods-- A Framework for Examining Method Comparability.
#|Strauss, S D. Zero discharge firmly entrenched as a powerplant design strategy.  POWER vol. 138, no. 10, pp. 41-48, 1994.  Driven by regulatory restrictions and penalties for withdrawals from the nation's watercourses, powerplant designers have focused strongly on recycling water to minimize flows both into and outside plant boundaries. Quality of, and proximity to, water sources are a major environmental factor in the siting stage and process design. Thereafter, wastewater discharge draws primary emphasis. Because the "zero-discharge" approach to wastewater management facilitates plant licensing markedly, it has become common practice for an increasing number of owners. Keep in mind, however that zero discharge may mean different things to different people. A recent survey conducted by the McGraw-Hill Energy Services Group found that requirements for zero discharge are not well defined or understood-by operating lants or authorities.
#|Stromberg, Juliet C. ; Sommerfeld, Milton R. ; Patten, Duncan T. ; Fry, Jana ; Kramer, Christine; Amalfi, Frederick ; Christian, Christopher.  Release of Effluent Into the Upper Santa Cruz River, Arizona: Ecological Considerations.  American Water Resources Association:  Proceedings of the Symposium on Effluent Use Management.  Tucson, AZ, August 29-September 2, 1993, p81-90.  The Santa Cruz River (SCR) is an international river of great ecologic and economic importance. Much of the lower SCR near Tucson, Arizona, is ephemeral and devegetated due to groundwater pumping, but the upper SCR remains a free flowing desert river. Groundwater is pumped from beneath the floodplain of the upper SCR to supply water to Nogales, Arizona and other municipalities, but a large portion of this water is returned to the river as effluent from the Nogales International Wastewater Treatment Plant (IWWTP).  In this same area, raw sewage is periodically released into the river via Nogales Wash. The effluent has enriched stream nutrient levels and raised riparian water tables allowing for the development of a dense riparian forest and more diverse aquatic biota downstream of the IWWTP.  Upstream of the IWWTP, near municipal well fields, there are local areas of water table depression and reduced riparian vegetation abundance. In 1992, an ecological study of the upper SCR and its riparian and aquatic zones was initiated. This paper discusses the results of the study, to date, with respect to ecological issues related to the extraction of alluvial groundwater and release of effluent from the IWWTP.
#|Stuijfzand SC; Drenth A; Helms M; Kraak MHS.  Bioassays using the midge Chironomus riparius and the zebra mussel Dreissena polymorpha for evaluation of river water quality.  ARCHIVES OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY, 1998, V34, N4 (MAY), P357-363. To evaluate if the water quality of the river Meuse affects macrofauna species, the impact of water from this river on two representative species was tested under controlled conditions.  Short-term bioassays with reference populations of the midge Chironomus riparius and the zebra mussel Dreissena polymorpha were performed simultaneously, using growth and filtration rate as sublethal parameters, respectively. Filtration rates of mussels seemed to be slightly inhibited by Meuse water in 1994 and 1995, although this was only significant in the first year. Apparently, although this species is inhabiting the river Meuse, the water quality still causes sublethal effects. In contrast to the mussel, midges were less sensitive to Meuse water in laboratory experiments; growth inhibition was never observed, while in some experiments growth was even enhanced. In the period of testing, it was not possible to relate effects on macrofauna species in laboratory tests to individual substances in polluted river systems. Because the response of the test species was marginal, it is recommended to include more sensitive species as tested in the present study, especially in view of a general improvement of the water quality in the river Meuse.
#|Suarez, J ; Ascorbe, A ; Liano, A ; Sainz, J A ; Tempano, J ; Tejero, I. Dynamic simulation of water quality in rivers. WASP5 application to the River Nalon (Spain).  INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON WATER POLLUTION: MODELLING, MEASURING AND PREDICTION. Wrobel, L C ; Latinopoulos, P (eds ), pp. 179-188, 1995.  This study was aimed at developing dynamic water quality models applied to the upper stretch of the river Nalon. They will be used in planning the sanitation of the Nalon basin. These models will be used to study the daily fluctuations in water quality and the impact combined sewer overflow (CSO) has on the aquatic system. In the past a steady state model based on the QUAL2E model was developed for the river Nalon. The theoretical model used, WASP5 (Water Analysis Simulation Package, ver. 5x  AMBROSE et al., 1991), is backed up by the US EPA. The model was approached using the validated model based on the QUAL2E program. The steady state model was validated and calibrated by specific field studies. All field study data and kinetic constants and parameters have been used for the dynamic model. The main daily wastewater discharges (flows and concentrations) are variables in the new simulations. The daily variation of dissolved oxygen has been studied and the following parameters have been simulated: BOD, ammonia, organic nitrogen, nitrates and total nitrogen. The final calibration-validation of the dynamic model was very good. The lagrangian sampling technique is appropriate for dynamic model calibration. The WASP5 program permits river water quality simulation with some limitations. The partial simulation of the CSO impact on the river is possible using the created model.
#|Sulaiman, A. Halim.  Acute Toxicity Relationships for Two Species of Fish Using a Simultaneous Testing Method.  Sci Total Environ  p1001(9) May 11-15, 93.  Simultaneous toxicity tests were conducted on fathead minnows and rainbow trout exposed to ten chemicals: acrolein, aniline, 2,4-dinitrophenol, nicotine sulfate, phenol, rotenone, silver nitrate, 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene, 2,4,6-trichlorophenol, and o-xylene. The 96-h LC50 values were determined for each species. All LC50 data for the two species are tabulated. Results indicated that the values were closely related. The LC50 of rainbow trout could consistently be predicted from that of fathead minnows by multiplying the latter by 0.92 and subtracting 0.51. This correlation for the two species was in agreement with published data. The economics and reliability of the simultaneous testing of more than one species are discussed.
#|Surampalli-R.Y. Proceedings of the EPA National Wastewater Treatment Technology Transfer Workshop (4th). Held in Kansas City, Missouri on May 17-19, 1995. Environmental Protection Agency, Kansas City, KS. Water and Pesticides Div. Oct 95. 284p. The workshop proceedings include topics such as: watershed and ecosystem management, nutrient removal in fixed-film processes, effluent toxicity reduction, EPA sanitary sewer overflow policy, chemical composition of urban runoff, spray and drip irrigation systems for small communities, an evaluation of wastewater diseases, ultra-violet disinfection of wastewater effluent, update on secondary clarifiers, IAWQ activated sludge models, fine-pore aeration systems, anaerobic sequencing batch reactor, upgrading aerated lagoons, sub-surface constructed wetlands, nitrogen removal in wetlands, multi-media industrial pollution prevention, biosolids conditioner control technologies, biosolids composting, and biosolids technical regulations.
#|Susong, D. D., M. L. Smalley and E. R. Banta. Water Resources of Washakie County, Wyoming. USGS Water-Resources Investigations Report 91-4044, 1993. 82p.  Data on the surface- and groundwater resources were compiled to summarize the water resources of Washakie County, Wyoming. This study, prepared in cooperation with the Wyoming State Engineer, is one in a series investigating the water resources of Wyoming counties. The three principal types of streams in the county are perennial, intermittent, and ephemeral. Perennial streams have continuous streamflows, and high streamflows are associated with snowmelt runoff; low streamflows usually occur in the winter months when the snowpack is frozen and groundwater discharge is at its smallest rate. Intermittent and ephemeral streams are characterized by periods of no flow, and high streamflows are associated with snowmelt or thunderstorms. The principal aquifers are as follows: alluvium of Quaternary age, Willwood Formation of Tertiary age, Fort Union Formation of Tertiary age, and the formations of primarily Paleozoic age-Goose Egg Formation, Tensleep Sandstone, Madison Limestone, Bighorn Dolomite, and Flathead Sandstone. Reported yields from wells completed in the alluvium ranged from 10 to 40 gal/min, and reported yields from wells completed in the Willwood Formation ranged from 1 to 28 gal/min. Yields as large as 2,500 gal/min are reported from wells completed in the Madison Limestone, Bighorn Dolomite, and Flathead Sandstone. Calcium magnesium sodium sulfate water with concentrations of dissolved solids greater than 1,000 mg/L are common in the alluvium, Willwood Formation and Fort Union Formation. Water samples from six of eight wells completed in the Willwood Formation have trace concentrations of herbicides. Calcium carbonate water with small dissolved-solids concentrations is common in the aquifers in Paleozoic formations.
#|Suter-G.W.  Ecotoxicological effects extrapolation models. Oak Ridge National Lab., TN.  Department of Energy, Washington, DC. 1996. 45p. Risk assessment: logic and measurement conference, Aiken, SC (United States), 20 Aug 1996. Sponsored by Department of Energy, Washington, DC. One of the central problems of ecological risk assessment is modeling the relationship between test endpoints (numerical summaries of the results of toxicity tests) and assessment endpoints (formal expressions of the properties of the environment that are to be protected). For example, one may wish to estimate the reduction in species richness of fishes in a stream reach exposed to an effluent and have only a fathead minnow 96 hr LC50 as an effects metric. The problem is to extrapolate from what is known (the fathead minnow LC50) to what matters to the decision maker, the loss of fish species. Models used for this purpose may be termed Effects Extrapolation Models (EEMs) or Activity-Activity Relationships (AARs), by analogy to Structure-Activity Relationships (SARs). These models have been previously reviewed in Ch. 7 and 9 of and by an OECD workshop. This paper updates those reviews and attempts to further clarify the issues involved in the development and use of EEMs. Although there is some overlap, this paper does not repeat those reviews and the reader is referred to the previous reviews for a more complete historical perspective, and for treatment of additional extrapolation issues.
#|Svanberg, O ; Bengtsson, B E.  Ecotoxicology -- application to pollution control and assessment (The Swedish CID system). POLLUTION CONTROL AND MANAGEMENT AND ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY. Wise, D L ; Polprasert, C ; Reutergardh, L ; Visvanathan, C ; Suselo, T B (eds ).  RESOURCES, CONSERVATION AND RECYCLING vol. 16, no. 1-4 pp. 321-333, 1996.  Int. Symp on Environmental Management and Pollution Control.  Bangkok (Thailand, 1994 Nov 7-14. Up until the last 10 years, concern about possible environmental effects of complex industrial effluents in an aquatic environment was generally directed toward clearly observable effects, such as eutrophication and fish kills. However, the development of environmental toxicology and chemistry and the experience from chronic and sublethal effect studies with pure compounds in the laboratory have made it clear that the technique must be improved to fit the regulatory work with complex wastewater effluents. In Sweden, the National Franchise Board for Environment Protection is the government agency for issuing permits and licenses. In several cases, during 1980-85, however, it postponed its final ruling, contending that it had not been provided with an adequate decision-making basis. The background to this has been the lack of adequate methods for gaining knowledge on the characteristics of the discharge as a basis for ecological risk assessment and the subsequent risk that greatly adverse economic consequences might result from the wrong kind of pollution-abatement investment. The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency was thus faced with the problem of finding useful tests that can be performed by commercial laboratories. In the past, recommendations have generally been too crude to encourage commercial laboratories to develop and/or specialize in a particular set of tests that can be used routinely in a chemical and biological characterization of complex industrial effluents. The need for a scientifically based ecotoxicological approach for administrative decisions concerning the regulation of industrial discharges resulted in a document: Biological-Chemical Characterization of Industrial Waste Water. The aim of the document was to present ecologically relevant methods, which could be applied for administrative purposes (Swedish EPA). In the following, the method described in the above-mentioned document is referred to as the 'CID' system (characterization of industrial discharges).
#|Svenson,-A.; Norin,-H.; Hynning,-P.-Aa. Toxicity-directed fractionation of effluents using the bioluminescence of Vibrio fischeri and gas chromatography/mass spectroscopy identification of the toxic components. ENVIRON.-TOXICOL.-WATER-QUAL. 1996  vol. 11, no. 3, pp. 277-284.  A procedure is presented for fractionating and identifying the dominant acute toxicants in effluents using the Microtox test to evaluate toxicity. Initial characterization of chemical and physical properties of the major toxicants was performed, and showed that the dominant toxicants were lipophilic. Samples containing lipophilic components were then fractionated by column chromatography, the fractions tested for toxicity, and toxic components identified. These toxicants were quantified in the effluent and a toxicity evaluation was performed as a material balance in toxicity. Three effluents were studied and found to contain only a few (2-4) toxicants or groups of related compounds. An effluent from a pharmaceutical industry contained a drug precursor and a drug constituent as dominant toxicants, and the combined toxicity of the two compounds, accounted for 87% of that of the effluent. A contribution from the interaction of the two compounds was observed. An effluent from a forest product industry contained two unsaturated fatty acids and an unsaturated fatty acid amide as dominant toxicants, and almost the total toxicity of the sample (97%) was accounted for by the three compounds with a contribution from the interaction of the three. The acute toxicity of a textile industry effluent was dominated by two unsaturated fatty acids and two tridecanols, and these compounds accounted for 84% of the toxicity of the original effluent. A mixture of aliphatic hydrocarbons was found in a toxic fraction, but was not further characterized, although the hydrocarbons may have contributed to the toxicity of the sample.
#|Swain, E. B., & Wyer, G.  From sources to fate and effects; an integrated approach to mercury control: Water quality criteria and standards for the 21st century; proceedings.  1994.  U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, United States.  Proceedings - Water Quality Criteria and Standards for the 21st Century National Conference-1.17-1.18.
#|Sztruhar Danie; Sokac Marek; Marsalek Jiri; Frankova Eleonora; Hyanek Lubomir; Rusnak Dusan; Stanko Stefan; Ilavsky Jan; Namer Juraj.  A case study of combined sewer overflow pollution: Assessment of sources and receiving water effects.  Water Quality Research Journal of Canada  32 (3):p563-578 1997.  Combined sewer overflow (CSO) pollution was assessed in a medium size community (the Town of Malacky) in western Slovakia by means of field monitoring and computer modelling. CSO samples were analyzed for suspended solids, total chemical oxygen demand, 5-day biochemical oxygen demand, total organic carbon, heavy metals (Cu, Zn, Ni, Cd, Pb), and biological and microbiological constituents. Study results identified CSOs as a major source of biodegradable organic pollution impacting on dissolved oxygen in the receiving streams. Cumulative effects of CSO discharges were also observed in the receiving streams, in the form of high organic content of benthic sediments, which indicated the deposition of wastewater-derived sediments flushed out from the sewer system during storm events. These findings have also been confirmed by analyses of biological constituents in the sediment samples collected from the receiving waters. A comparative analysis of various pollution sources indicated that pollution problems in the receiving waters were caused not only by the municipal effluents from the Town of Malacky, but also by diffuse agricultural pollution and release of heavy metals, especially Zn, from the native soils in the surrounding area.
#|Tanji, K K. Irrigation with marginal quality waters: Issues. AMERICAN SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS. JOURNAL OF IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE ENGINEERING vol. 123, no. 3, pp. 165-169, 1997.  Due to increasingly stringent regulations on the discharge of wastewaters as well as the decreasing availability of freshwater resources, there is a need to consider the expanded use and reuse of marginal quality waters for irrigation and other purposes. This paper addresses broad issues related to the potential reuse of (1) Treated municipal wastewaters (2) food processing wastewaters (3) confined animal lagoon waters and (4) saline waters, including irrigation drainage waters, on croplands and pastures, landscapes, and agroforestry systems. The long-term efficacy of irrigation with marginal quality waters is dependent on several factors, such as unique limiting water quality characteristics and site-specific crop, soil and climatic conditions. Opportunities exist to use marginal quality waters beneficially. However, their use requires more intensive management and monitoring than use of higher quality waters. Site-specific management options are used to partially overcome many of the potentially adverse impacts, but some impacts are unavoidable. In many instances, the upper bounds of wastewater usage are not fully known and potential long-term cumulative impacts on the environment require further research.
#|Tanner,-D.Q.; Anderson,-C.W.  Assessment of water quality, nutrients, algal productivity, and management alternatives for low-flow conditions, South Umpqua River Basin, Oregon, 1990-92. Water Resources Investigations Report: 96-4082. This report is an evaluation of the effects of nutrient loading on water quality in the South Umpqua River Basin. The study was done by the U.S. Geological Survey in cooperation with Douglas County, Oregon. Five wastewater-treatment plants were shown to contribute less than 15 percent of the flow, but more than 90 percent of the nitrogen and phosphorus, in the South Umpqua River during low streamflows in summer. These nutrient inputs were associated with, and largely responsible for, the dense growth of periphytic algae that covered the rocky channel and produced biomass values as large as 340 grams of ash-free dry weight per square meter. The nighttime respiration of periphytic algae caused violations of the Oregon water-quality standard, which requires a dissolved oxygen concentration of at least 90 percent of saturation, at most sites along the South Umpqua River. Photosynthesis by algae during daylight resulted in many exceedances of the Oregon pH standard of 8.5. Net productivity, calculated from hourly measurements of dissolved oxygen concentrations, was as much as 3.8 grams of oxygen per square meter per day. The magnitude of productivity increased with increases in dissolved inorganic nitrogen concentration and load. The large amount of nutrient uptake by algae resulted in lowered nutrient concentrations downstream from nutrient point sources. Management alternatives for the South Umpqua River Basin include several methods to reduce nutrient concentrations and loads. The reduction of dissolved-inorganic-nitrogen and soluble-reactive-phosphorus loads from wastewater-treatment-plant effluent would reduce the frequency of violations of water-quality standards. Flow augmentation probably would decrease water-quality problems in the river, but it is difficult to predict the magnitude of the effects of increased velocity and decreased temperature on algal growth. Land application and storage of wastewater-treatment-plant effluent during the summer months would reduce the input of nutrients from point sources. Three exceedances of the Oregon standard for fecal coliform of 200 colonies per 100 milliliters were associated with large streamflows, suggesting that nonpoint sources affect the river during periods of high runoff. Fecal-streptococcus counts were larger than historical values and require confirmation. Ammonia from wastewater-treatment-plant effluent, high pH values, and high temperatures present a potential for chronic ammonia toxicity in the lower reaches of the South Umpqua River; however, actual violations of standards for chronic concentrations were not detected because of diel fluctuations in pH and water temperature.
#|Tariq, J ; Ashraf, M ; Jaffar, M.  Metal pollution status of the River Chennab, Pakistan through fish, water and sediment analysis.  TOXICOLOGICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY vol. 38, no. 3-4, pp. 175-181, 1993.  The pollution status of the river Chennab, Pakistan is assessed through the estimation of silver, arsenic, cadmium, chromium, copper, iron, manganese, nickel, lead, zinc, mercury, sodium, potassium, calcium and magnesium in fish, water and sediment samples from three sites in close vicinity to industrial estates. The data revealed elevated levels of silver, arsenic, chromium, nickel and zinc in certain fish. Catla catla, Cirrhinus marigala and Labeo rohita showed elevated metal levels. The elevated metal levels were correlated with water but not with sediment. The origin of high metal concentrations were traced in municipal sewage, uncontrolled industrial effluents and other anthropogenic activities.
#|Tate C M; Heiny J S.  The ordination of benthic invertebrate communities in the South Platte River Basin in relation to environmental factors.  Freshwater Biology  33 (3):p439-454 1995.  1. Spatial patterns of benthic-invertebrate communities were examined in the 62 900 km-2 South Platte River Basin in Colorado, Nebraska and Wyoming, U.S.A., to determine major environmental factors associated with invertebrate distribution. Stable substrates were sampled semiquantitatively for invertebrates from 27 July to 7 August 1992, at twenty-one sites. Data on physical and chemical variables were collected concurrently at each site. 2. Four site groups were identified using detrended correspondence analysis (DCA), one in the mountains and three in the plains (braided channels, tributaries near the confluence with the main stem, and sites affected by effluent from wastewater-treatment plants). DCA axis 1 separated sites into the two major ecoregions (Southern Rocky Mountains and Western High Plains), and regression of DCA axis 1 with environmental variables indicated significant relationships primarily with slope, water temperature, specific conductance, and concentrations of organic nitrogen + ammonia and total phosphorus in surface water. Regression of DCA axis 2 with environmental variables indicated significant relationships with channel width and concentrations of nitrate + nitrite in surface water. 3. Invertebrate community composition and structure varied between ecoregions with greater number of taxa and number of insect families in mountain streams than in plains streams. Within an ecoregion, land use affected the invertebrate community. 4. Factors affecting invertebrate community distribution in stream ecosystems are scale dependent.
#|Taylor, T. W., & Mattson, C. E.  1994.  Runoff Effects on Surface Water Quality near Potential Mining Project.  AWRA/et al.  Effects of Human-Induced Changes on Hydrol Syst Symp, Jackson Hole, WY.  June 26-29, 1994.  p265(10). The Adler Pond project in northwestern Maine will involve the underground exploration and mineral development of copper, zinc, lead, and silver. As part of the state permitting process, four streams in the region were selected for storm-runoff surveys in an effort to establish baseline water-quality criteria. Runoff samples were collected and analyzed for common ions, and the constituents were compared for spring and fall storms. Results indicated that the common ions and cations occurring during the rise and fall of the stream stage were associated with the solution of soluble salts in the soil, the dilution of base flow, selective weathering of minerals, and leaching of potassium from biological material. Consistent seasonal variations were observed in water-quality parameters. pH was found to be near neutral, indicating the significant buffering capacity of the soils.
#|Technical and economic feasibility assessment of metals reduction in pulp and paper mill wastewaters.  NCASI Technical Bulletin n 756 May 1998. p 1-37.  1998.  Metals removal process for achieving metals limitations derived from the Great Lakes Initiative (GLI) surface water quality criteria is evaluated. The metals are grouped according to the order of greatest concern to least concern: 1) mercury; 2) cadmium, copper, chromium, nickel, and zinc; and 3) arsenic, which means that the GLI mercury criterion must be satisfied. Because of the few data for metals removal processes in pulp and paper mill wastewaters, process costs and treatment efficiencies were estimated by projecting results obtained by treating wastewaters from other industries onto the realm of pulp and paper wastewaters. In plant treatment should be considered if the in-plant stream contains a high-percentage of the total plant metals loading.
#|Teh, Swee J ; Adams, S M ; Hinton, D E.  Histopathologic biomarkers in feral freshwater fish populations exposed to different types of contaminant stress.  AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY vol. 37, no. 1, pp. 51-70, 1997.  Histopathologic alterations of gill, liver, and spleen were studied in feral fish from three freshwater ecosystems that experience different types of contaminant stress. East Fork Poplar Creek (EFPC), a third-order stream in East Tennessee, receives point source discharges of mixed contaminants from a nuclear weapons facility located near its headwater. The Pigeon River (PR), a high-gradient fifth order stream, is impacted by bleached kraft mill effluent (BKME). Hartwell Reservoir (HR), a US Army Corp of Engineers impoundment of the Savannah River, contains high levels of PCBs in sediment and biota. Brushy Fork Creek (BFC), the Little River (LR), and the Tugaloo River (TR) are relatively free of contaminants, and served as reference sites for the three respective ecosystems of this study. Certain organ and tissue lesions, detected microscopically, were common to fish from both reference and contaminated sites. These included parasites, inflammation, glycogen deficiency, macrophage aggregates (MA), and diffuse fatty change in the liver parasites and MA in the spleen and parasites, secondary lamellar fusion, and variable epithelial cell hyperplasia in the gills. Lesions found only in fish from contaminated sites were: (1) cholangiomas in liver of redbreast sunfish (Lepomis auratus) collected from EFPC (2) amphophilic and eosinophilic foci of cellular alteration, diffuse biliary preductular and ductular hyperplasia with islands of hyperplastic basophilic hepatocytes, and two metastatic thyroidal carcinomas in spleen of redbreast sunfish from PR (3) severe lipidosis, vacuolated and basophilic foci in largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) from HR (4) splenic lymphoid cell depletion and vascular congestion, with necrosis of reticuloendothelial cells in fish collected from EFPC and HR (5) hyperplasia of mucous and chloride cells, deformed branchial cartilage, severe and diffuse aneurysms of lamellae, and edema at the base of the secondary lamellae were in gill of fish from all three sites. The finding of specific lesions only in fish from contaminated sites suggests a contaminant etiology. Histopathology biomarker lesions identified in this study are similar to those observed in laboratory exposures of fishes to specific pollutants. Further refinement of these biomarker approaches will be discussed in light of multiple stressors and their effects.
#|Terrio, P J.  Relations of changes in wastewater-treatment practices to changes in stream-water quality during 1978-88 in the Chicago Area, Illinois, and implications for regional and national water-quality assessments.  56 pp., 1994.  USGS Water-Resources Investigations Report: 93-4188.  A study in the upper Illinois River Basin defined relations between changes in wastewater-treatment practices and changes in stream-water quality on the basis of available information. These relations were examined for five large wastewater-treatment plants in the Chicago area, Illinois. At the three largest treatment plants, two major changes in wastewater-treatment practices were identified-the cessation of chlorination and the implementation of Chicago's Tunnel and Reservoir Plan (TARP). Other changes, such as improved aeration and expansion of the facilities, also were made at some of the treatment plants. At the Calumet Water Reclamation Plant, median densities of fecal coliform bacteria in the effluent increased from 3,100 to 1,200,000 colonies per 100 milliliters after the cessation of chlorination. Median densities at the nearest downstream monitoring site increased from 9,500 to 250,000 colonies per 100 milliliters.  Similar changes in bacteria densities were indicated for other treatment plants and stream-monitoring sites, but increases in densities of fecal coliform bacteria were not indicated at distances greater than 7 miles downstream. Substantial changes in effluent and stream-water quality, primarily improvements, were identified after the implemen- of TARP and improvements in aeration. Decreases in some of the largest concentrations of ammonia were particularly notable and were likely results of the cape and treatment of combined sewer overflows by TARP. Improvements in water quality were commonly related to climatic season, with greater changes taking place during warm periods. Substantial decreases in concentrations were identified for many constituents, including oxygen demand, ammonia, bacteria, and cyanide. The water-quality data available for this study were considered to be more accurate and were more comprehensive than data from most other monitoring programs. The results of this study, however, identified some needed enhancements to increase the usefulness of the data for additional purposes and analyses.
#|Tester, D J. Statutory water quality objectives on the River Cam. J. INST. WATER ENVIRON. MANAGE. vol. 8, no. 3, pp. 246-255, 1994.  The Government has announced its wishes to gradually introduce statutory water quality objectives in pilot catchments, commencing in late 1993. The River Cam is one of the catchments under consideration. The paper describes the main physical features of the River Cam and its uses, which include salmonid and cyprinid fisheries, agricultural and industrial abstraction, and recreational pursuits. Significant sewage and industrial discharges in the catchment, and their impact on water quality, are discussed, and current river quality is compared with established river quality objectives. EC requirements and proposed statutory water quality objectives. Procedures for setting the latter objectives are considered, together with monitoring and compliance assessment. Future effluent discharge standards are proposed, and options to achieve long-term water quality targets are suggested as part of a catchment management action plan.
#|Thi Yen Nguyen(a); Oanh N T K; Reutergardh Lars Baetz; Wise Donald.  L; Thi Thu Lan Nguyen.  An integrated waste survey and environmental effects of COGIDO, a bleached pulp and paper mill in Vietnam, on the receiving waterbody.  Resources Conservation and Recycling 18 (1-4):p161-173 1996.  An integrated investigation on wastewater characterization and the environmental effects from the COGIDO pulp and paper mill in Bien Hoa Industrial Estate, Vietnam, a chlorine bleached soda integrated pulp and paper mill operating without a chemical recovery system, on the receiving water body was conducted during the rainy and dry seasons in 1993 and 1995. The pollution load from the mill was very high in terms of BOD, COD and SS (COD-m: 58.7 t/d; BOD: 33.3 t/d and SS: 25.1 t/d). The effluent toxicity was determined using four toxicity tests: the green micro-alga, Selenastrum capricornutum, Microtox (marine bacteria: Photobacterium phosphoreum), the duckweed, Lemna aequinoctialis, and fish (silver barb: Puntius gonionotus, and Tilapia: Tilapia nilotica). Selenastrum capricornutum was the most sensitive among the tested organisms. The mill toxicity emission rate (TER) was as high as 338 610 (Selenastrum test).  The bleaching-pulp and semi-chemical pulp plants which contributed the largest pollution load to the total COGIDO effluent, therefore, were targeted for abatement measures. Physico-chemical parameters as well as qualitative and quantitative aquatic organism composition for the river water were established. The BOD, and COD values exceeded the potable surface water standard by a factor of 2 to 4. The species diversity and abundance of the phytoplankton, zooplankton and zoobenthos were found to be lower (20-40%) than that of unpolluted rivers in Vietnam, whereas pollution-indicator species increased up to four times during the dry season 1995.
#|Thomas J F. Wastewater re-use: Report (Part 1) on international discussions: COAG study on wastewater re-use, improved stormwater management, and disposal to sensitive environments. Australia Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization Institute of Natural Resources and Environment Division of Water Resources Technical Memorandum  0 (95-14):pPAGINATION VARIES 1995.
#|THOMAS JF. Optimization of a periodic biological process for nitrogen removal from wastewater. WATER RESEARCH; 30 (1). 1996. 142-152. The Bio-Denipho process, a "phased isolation ditch" technology, varies both aeration pattern and flow path in a continuous flow multi-reactor system to force oscillation of organic and nutrient concentrations in process reactors.  Using asix-phase cycle,desired biochemical transformations (e.g. nitrification, denitrification),are accomplished at different times in the same reactor. We used an industry-standard biokinetic model (IAWPRC) to develop and test three control strategies of increasing sophistication: (a) fixed phase lengths, (b) use of constant set points to switch between phases thus resulting in variable phase lengths, and (c) use of switching set points which are a function of on-line measurements (criteria functions). These strategies were optimized for nominal diurnal operating conditions, with the objective of minimizing effluent soluble nitrogen, subject to an upper bound on the oxygen transfer coefficient. In addition, performance of the strategies was simulated against 1-, 2-, and 5-day sustained peak loads. Under nominal diurnal conditions, the performance obtained with each strategy was comparable.  Under peak loading conditions, both of the switching set point strategies gave substantially better performance than the fixed phase length strategy. Criteria functions were marginally better than constant switch points.
#|THOMAS JF. Sorption of organic pollutants on anthropogenic humic matter. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY; 29 (4). 1995. 941-950.  Anthropogenic and natural humic materials were investigated as sorbents for hydrophobic solutes in aqueous solution. The first was taken from a brown coal wastewater pond. The measured sorption coefficients KOC and KDOM are close to literature values for both sorbents. This holds for particulate (sediments) as well as for dissolved materials (humic and fulvic acids). A modified solubility parameter concept is proposed to better understand the KOC-KOW correlation. It makes it possible to estimate sorption coefficients for nonpolar solutes based on their KOW, if the delta value of the sorbent is known. On the other hand, measured sorption coefficients permit the calculation of this value, which can be considered a feature of the humic fraction under study. The meanic organic matter estimated from sorption data in this paper is 12.5 0.5 (cal CM-3)1/2.
#|THOMAS JF. STORMWATER MANAGEMENT REPORT PART 2 ON INTERNATIONAL DISCUSSIONS COAG STUDY ON WASTEWATER RE-USE IMPROVED STORMWATER MANAGEMENT AND DISPOSAL TO SENSITIVE ENVIRONMENTS. AUSTRALIA COMMONWEALTH SCIENTIFIC AND INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH ORGANIZATION INSTITUTE OF NATURAL RESOURCES AND ENVIRONMENT DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES TECHNICAL MEMORANDUM; 0 (95-15). 1995. PAGINATION VARIES.
#|THOMAS JF. Use of micronucleus test technique to evaluation the water pollution index of heavy metal.  CHINESE JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE (BEIJING); 14 (3). 1993, 76-79, 95-96.  Micronucleus test technique in vicia faba root tips and ortnogonal design-based experiments have been used to monitor the pollution by model wastewater containing different levels of Pb, Cd, Crand As. The results show how that the difference of micronucleus frequency (MCNF) among each treatments are significant or very significant as compared with the control. When the pollution index is <1.68, the water is not considered to be polluted by heavy metal pollutants; when the pollution index is >1.68-2.98, the content of -heavy metal pollutants in the wastewater is not over the standard capacity; when the pollution index is >2.98-4.9, the pollutants are not over the standard capacity but there is at least a kind of pollutants that complies with the second standard capacity of irrigation water; when the pollution index is >4.90-5.38, there are one or two heavy metal pollutants over standard capacity; when the pollution index is >5.38, there axe at least 3 kinds of heavy metal pollutants over standard capacity.
#|Thomas, G P ; Munteanu, N. Benthic community populations near two adjacent northern pulpmill discharges.  FOREST INDUSTRY WASTEWATER V. SELECTED PROCEEDINGS OF THE 5TH IAWQ INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON FOREST INDUSTRY WASTEWATERS, HELD IN VANCOUVER, BC, CANADA, 10-13 JUNE 1996. Hall, E R ; Colodey, A G  (eds ) WATER SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY vol. 35, no. 2-3 pp. 381-388, 1997. Benthic invertebrate communities were investigated as part of the federal Environmental Effects Monitoring programs conducted as required by the amended Pulp and Paper Effluent Regulations (PPER) of the federal Fisheries Act. A Refiner Mechanical (RMP) and larger Kraft pulpmill, both situated on a northern, BC reservoir, discharge secondary-treated effluent within 5 km of each other. Efforts to independently distinguish potential effects associated with these individual discharges were complicated by the proximity of the diffusers, their location within a complex ecological region of a reservoir, and the presence of temporal and spatial confounding influences. A comprehensive examination of the benthic community structure involved the combined assessment of several endpoints (total population numbers, relative proportion of taxonomic groups, and species richness). A tiered, spatial approach, based on a reservoir ecological model (Thornton et al., 1981), was adapted to assess and distinguish community structures and reservoir- and mill-related influences. Results suggested that effects associated with the twodifferent mills could be distinguished based on subtle and distinct differences in benthic community profiles.
#|Thompson, C. J. ; Ballinger, M. Y. ; Damberg, E. G. ; Riley, R. G.  Characterization and monitoring of 300 Area facility liquid waste streams during 1994 and 1995.  Department of Energy, Washington, DC.  Report No.: PNNL-11552.  Jul 97, 150p.  Pacific Northwest National Laboratory's Facility Effluent Management Program characterized and monitored liquid waste streams from 300 Area buildings that are owned by the US Department of Energy and are operated by Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. The purpose of these measurements was to determine whether the waste streams would meet administrative controls that were put in place by the operators of the 300 Area Treated Effluent Disposal Facility.  This report summarizes the data obtained between March 1994 and September 1995 on the following waters: liquid waste streams from Buildings 306, 320, 324, 325, 326, 327, 331, and 3,720; treated and untreated Columbia River water (influent); and water at the confluence of the waste streams (that is, end-of-pipe).
#|Thorburn,-P.J.; Walker,-G.R.  Variations in stream water uptake by Eucalyptus camaldulensis with differing access to stream water. OECOLOGIA 1994  vol. 100, no. 3, pp. 293-301.  The stable isotopes super(2)H and super(18)O were used to determine the water sources of Eucalyptus camaldulensis at three sites with varying exposure to stream water, all underlain by moderately saline groundwater. Water uptake patterns were a function of the long-term availability of surface water. Trees with permanent access to a stream used some stream water at all times. However, water from soils or the water table commonly made up 50% of these trees' water. Trees beside an ephemeral stream had access to the stream 40-50% of the time (depending on the level of the stream). No more than 30% of the water they used was stream water when it was available. However, stream water use did not vary greatly whether the trees had access to the stream for 2 weeks or 10 months prior to sampling. Trees at the third site only had access to surface water during a flood. These trees did not change their uptake patterns during 2 months inundation compared with dry times, so were not utilising the low-salinity flood water. Pre-dawn leaf water potentials and leaf super(13)C measurements showed that the trees with permanent access to the stream experienced lower water stress and had lower water use efficiencies than trees at the least frequently flooded site. The trees beside the ephemeral stream appeared to change their water use efficiency in response to the availability of surface water; it was similar to the perennial-stream trees when stream water was available and higher at other times. Despite causing water stress, uptake of soil water and groundwater would be advantageous to E. camaldulensis in this semi-arid area, as it would provide the trees with a supply of nutrients and a reliable source of water. E camaldulensis at the study site may not be as vulnerable to changes in stream flow and water quality as previously thought.
#|Thorn-W.C.; Milewski-C.L. Identification of Factors Limiting Game Fish in Southern Minnesota Streams. Staff rept. PB96117478XSP. Minnesota Dept. of Natural Resources, St. Paul.  Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, DC. 1995. 33p. Sponsored by Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, DC. Degradation of physical habitat in southern Minnesota rivers and streams reduced habitat diversity, reduced habitat variable differences among ecoregions, limited game fish populations, and altered fish communities. To increase habitat diversity, habitat management should increase diversity of substrate, cover, depth, and velocity. Reducing sedimentation and increasing instream structural diversity should begin stream habitat restoration. Rehabilitation of riparian vegetation should increase habitat diversity but will take decades to centuries for success. Instream strategies may accelerate habitat restoration. From the Minnesota stream survey manual, managers can develop stream management plans when physical habitat limits fisheries. When water quality limits fisheries, additional sampling may be necessary to identify the specific problem, but general efforts to riparian protection may help.
#|Tisler, T ; Zagorc Koncan, J. Relative sensitivity of some selected aquatic organisms to phenol. BULLETIN OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY vol. 54, no. 5, pp. 717-723, 1995.  The purpose of our research was to determine the toxicity of phenol to some aquatic organisms from the groups of bacteria, algae, crustacea and fishes, and to determine the most sensitive kind. We were interested to learn the degree of sensitivity that Daphnia magna as the standard test organism in the acute toxicity test (International Organisation for Standardization 1989) will show in comparison with other species. Test organisms have been selected from three basic groups in the food chain (bacteria - decomposers, algae - producers and crustacea, fish - consumers). Phenol, an organic degradable substance that is a frequent contaminant in wastewaters, has been chosen for the test substance.
#|TONG Z, HUAILAN Z, & HONGJUN J. (1996). CHRONIC TOXICITY OF ACRYLONITRILE AND ACETONITRILE TO DAPHNIA-MAGNA IN 14-D AND 21-D TOXICITY TESTS.  BULLETIN OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY, V57, N4, P655-659. Daphnia magna 21-d survival and reproduction test has been used as the standard method to evaluate chronic toxicity of pollutants and wastewater to aquatic invertebrate (OECD 1986; U.S. EPA 1973; ASTM 1981). The requirement of a 21-d exposure period makes this a costly test. In addition, numerous laboratories have reported problems with the lack of consistent and sustained reproduction as Hell as inadequate survival over the 21-d period, These realities often detract from the overall credibility of daphnia test data and the utility of the test species (Adams and Heidolph 1985). Adams and Heidolph (1985) compared the Daphnia magna 21-d and 14-d survival and reproduction test methods with 30 tests of 21-d chronic toxicity and 18 tests of 48-hr acute toxicity. The results showed that the MATC (Maximum Allowable Toxicant Concentration) after 21-d exposure might be exactly estimated with the reproduction and survival data of 14-d tests. So they suggested that the standard protocols For D. magna chronic test be changed to a requirement of only a 14-d period of exposure instead of 21-d. This proposal was supported by the test results of other researchers (Gersich 1990). This study performed Daphnia magna 21-d and 14-d survival and reproduction tests of two pollutants, acrylonitrile and acetonitrile, which were the important pollutants in the wastewater from the petro-chemical industry. Acrylonitrile is the priority pollutant in many countries including the United States, China and Germany. The sensitivity of the two methods was compared according to the results. This paper also discussed Adams and Heidolph's suggestion about using 14-d test method instead of 21-d test method. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the feasibility of D. magna 14-d test in the chronic toxicity assay for invertebrate animals.
#|Torno, Harry ; Warwick, John ; Urbonas, Ben.  Summary of NPDES Monitoring Needs.  Integrated Water Resources Planning for the 21st Century: 22nd Annual Conference: American Society of Civil Engineers, Water Resources Planning and Management Division Cambridge, MA., May 7-11, 1995, p 41-44, 1995. The Urban Water Resources Research Council of ASCE sponsored an Engineering Foundation Conference on Stormwater NPDES-Related Monitoring Needs, which was held August 7-12, 1994, in Crested Butte, Colorado. The Conference was prompted by concerns that, while we as a nation are spending millions of dollars on storm water monitoring, we still are not able to predict the effects of storm water discharges on the environment, particularly in the long term. The Conference explored available technology associated with storm water monitoring, and brought together regulators, the regulated community and their consultants, and academicians, to determine what must be done to achieve the various goals set forth for storm water in the Clean Water Act, and the municipal and industrial NPDES regulations that implement that act. This paper summarizes the key points raised in the Conference presentations, and related discussions.
#|TRAINA SJ, MCAVOY DC, & VERSTEEG DJ. (1996). ASSOCIATION OF LINEAR ALKYLBENZENESULFONATES WITH DISSOLVED HUMIC SUBSTANCES AND ITS EFFECT ON BIOAVAILABILITY.  ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY, V30, N4, P1300-1309. The association of C-10-, C-12- and C-14-linear alkylbenzenesulfonates (LAS) with natural and specimen-grade dissolved humic substances (DHS) was measured with fluorescence quenching and with ultracentrifugation techniques. Good agreement was obtained with both of the analytical methods, suggesting that fluorescence quenching could be used to measure aqueous-phase partition coefficients. LAS-DHS partition coefficients increased with increasing length of the alkyl chain, Partition coefficients for the sorption of LAS to alkylammonium surfactant-coated, phyllosilicate clays also increased with increasing length of the alkyl chain in the LAS molecules. Taken together, these data indicate the significance of nonpolar forces in LAS-organic matter interactions. Toxicity studies examined the effects of DHS on the bioavailability to the fathead minnow, Pimephales promelas. Changes in the uptake and toxicity of LAS resulting from the addition of DHS were used to calculate aqueous-phase LAS-DHS partition coefficients. Good agreement was found between the partition coefficients calculated from the response of the test organism and those obtained with fluorescence and ultracentrifugation measurements. The toxicity studies suggest that the association of LAS with DHS can play a significant role in reducing the biologically available fraction of LAS in surface waters.
#|Trehy, M. L.; Gledhill, W. E.; Mieure, J. P.; Adamove, J. E.; Nielsen, A. M.; Perkins, H. O.; Eckhoff, W. S.  Environmental monitoring for linear alkylbenzene sulfonates, dialkyltetralin sulfonates and their biodegradation intermediates.  Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry  vol. 15 (3):  p.233-240.  1996.  Concentrations of linear alkylbenzene sulfonate (LAS), dialkylteralin sulfonates (DATS), and their biodegradation intermediates are reported for the influents and effluents of 10 U.S. domestic waste water treatment plants as well as upstream and downstream river waters and sediments.  Three types of treatment abilities in 10 USA states were sampled and analysed.  Removals were calculated based on initial concentrations of LAS and DATS.  A derivation electron capture/gas chromatography/mass spectrometry method was employed.  Its increased sensitivity and selectivity permitted the determination of environmental levels of LAS, DATS, and their filter waste water treatment facilities averaged 99.5 and 82.9% for LAS and 9.1 and 97.3% for LAS intermediates, resp., for the activated sludge and trickling filter facilities. In the same plants, percent removals for DATS averaged 95 and 63.2% and DATS intermediates 59.1 and 58.7%, respectively.  The removals obtained by a rotating biological contactor were similar to those observed in the activated sludge waste water treatment facilities.
#|Tremwel, T.K.  Campbell, K.L.; Miller, L.W.  Geometrically incremental volume sampling for ephemeral channel pollutants.  Applied engineering in agriculture. Nov 1996. v. 12 (6)  p. 655-661. Storage-based upland hydrology complicates the measurement of surface water contaminant parameters on Florida's flatwoods soils.  Ephemeral streams and ditches may seldom contain any flow, but may suddenly fill with flow that persists for days or weeks. If the first-flush effect is to be studied, sampling programs must sample frequently on the quick rising limb of a runoff event, while conserving sampler bottles for the slow falling limb. A datalogger-controlled sampling technique which uses a geometrically increasing runoff volume relationship was developed to sample both small and large natural events adequately and automatically. Hydrographs of actual field data are used to illustrate the performance of the technique during one large and one small event.  Comparisons to standard flow proportional sampling techniques are included. The new technique provides adequate sampling for about a 100-fold range of runoff volumes, allowing accurate calibration and verification of field-scale water quality models. Nutrient data is superimposed onto hydrographs to show the trends revealed using the technique. The principal advantage of the technique is that it is less labor and resource intensive than traditional methods and yet it gives a more accurate determination of pollutant loading in ephemeral ditches and streams.  The increased level of accuracy could allow the determination of dominant physical processes present in contaminant solubilization or detachment and transport during natural storms of various sizes.
#|TURNER MG; ARTHAUD GJ; ENGSTROM RT; HEJL SJ; LIU JG; LOEB S; MCKELVEY K.  USEFULNESS OF SPATIALLY EXPLICIT POPULATION-MODELS IN LAND MANAGEMENT.  ECOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS, 1995, V5, N1 (FEB), P12-16.  Land managers need new tools, such as spatial models, to aid them in their decision-making processes because managing for biodiversity, water quality, or natural disturbance is challenging, and landscapes are complex and dynamic. Spatially explicit population models are helpful to managers because these models consider both species-habitat relationships and the arrangement of habitats in space and time. The visualizations that typically accompany spatially explicit models also permit managers to ''see'' the effects of alternative management strategies on populations of interest. However, the expense entailed in developing the data bases required for spatially explicit models may limit widespread implementation. In addition, many of the models are developed for one or a few species, and dealing with multiple species in a landscape remains a significant challenge. To be most useful to land managers, spatially explicit population models should be user friendly, easily portable, operate on spatial and temporal scales appropriate to management decisions, and use input and output variables that can be measured affordably.
#|Twist H; Edwards A C; Codd G A.  Algal growth responses to waters of contrasting tributaries of the River Dee, north-east Scotland.  Water Research  32 (8):p2471-2479 Aug., 1998.  Increasing legislative emphasis is being placed on the use of biological indices in water quality assessments. The majority of current techniques have been developed for use in standing waters. Similar techniques are needed which provide in situ biological assessments of flowing waters, which should intrinsically include all of the time-integrated factors controlling algal growth. This paper presents a biomonitor which uses 3 alginate-immobilized algal species, and shows its practical use by measuring growth responses in two contrasting tributaries of the R. Dee. Growth was quantified using a non-destructive, automated absorbance scan (650 nm) across the surface of nylon-supported, thin (apprx 1 mm) films of alginate-immobilized algal cells. Significant differences (P < 0.001) occurred between growth responses at the two sites, and between the responses of individual algal species. These data are compared with the results obtained from a laboratory-based, free-cell bioassay, which suggested that growth was not being limited by either nitrogen or phosphorus added at 10 and 1 mug cm-3 respectively. The two methods provided cons stent assessments of the water quality, although for different reasons; the eutrophic status of one river meant further N and P additions were not significant, and the chemical properties of a second river, such as pH, may have been the growth-limiting factors. This preliminary field assessment shows the alginate film method is sensitive, tough and durable, and allows continual, site-specific, assessment of water quality. We also discuss the adaptability and potential standardization of this bioassessment method.
#|U. S. National Research Council.  Water science and technology board; Annual report 1993-1994.  U. S., National Research Council, Washington, DC,United States.  U. S. Department of Energy, Office of Energy Research, Washington, DC, United States.  1995, 36 p. REPORT NO.: DOE/ER/60743-T3.  AVAILABILITY: National Technical Information Service, order number DE95005514NEG.  This report summarizes the activities of the Water Science and Technology Board during 1993-1994. The WSTB is intended to be a dynamic forum, a mechanism by which the broad community of water science, technology, and policy professionals can help assure high-quality national water programs. The principal products of WSTB studies are written reports which cover a wide range of water resources issues of current national concern. A few recent examples are: Alternatives for ground water cleanup; Managing wastewater in coastal urban areas; and, Water transfers in the West - efficiency, equity and the environment. Projects completed, ongoing studies and published reports are described in detail in their respective sections of this report.
#|U.S. Departent of Interior.  Natural Resource Damage Assessment Model for the Great Lakes Environments (NRDAM/GLE) (on diskette).  (Model-Simulation).  Departent of Interior, Office of Environmental Policy and Compliance.  April 1996.
#|U.S. Department of Agriculture.  Description of the ecoregions of the United States.  2nd ed., rev. and enl. Mar. 1995. Washington, DC : U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service, 1995.  Miscellaneous publication ; no. 1391 Miscellaneous publication (United States. Dept. of Agriculture) ; no. 1391. GOVDOC NO:  A 1.38:1391/995 0013-A.  U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.  Hierarchical subdivisions of the Columbia Plateau and Blue Mountains ecoregions, Oregon and Washington.  Portland, Or.: USDA, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, 1997.  General technical report PNW ; GTR-395 General technical report PNW ; 395.
#|U.S. Department of Defense.  The Water Quality for River-Reservoir Systems.  Package consists of three separate computer programs.  NTIS PB91-509984INC. 1991.  Reservoir Water Quality evaluates water quality conditions in a reservoir. The program is one-dimensional and is used to evaluate the vertical stratification for up to 18 physical, chemical, and biological parameters. This program is intended to interface on input (from upstream analysis) and output (for downstream analysis) with both the Stream Hydraulics Package and the Stream Water Quality computer programs.  Stream Hydraulics Package evaluates velocity, flow and depth at regular time intervals in a stream network of branching channels and/or around islands. The hydraulic analysis can be performed using input stage-discharge relationships, backwater equations, hydrologic routines, or the unsteady flow equations at the user's option. SHP can also be used to produce a magnetic tape or disk interface for the 'Stream Water Quality' program and/or accept input from the 'Reservoir Water Quality' program for a river-reservoir system analysis. This program is also capable of accepting inflow hydrographs from STORM, and cross section geometry from HEC2 or GEDA.  Stream Water Quality evaluates water quality conditions in a stream network of branching channels and/or around islands. It can be used to produce inflow quantity and quality input data for the Reservoir Water Quality program. This program also has the capability to accept inflow quantity and quality storm water runoff from the STORM computer program. The program is designed to accept hydraulic input from the Stream Hydraulics Package.
#|U.S. Department of Energy, Richland, WA. Richland Operations Office.  State Waste Discharge Permit application for industrial discharge to land: 200 East Area W-252 streams.  Contract Number: DOE-RL-93-61.  NTIS/DE94006801, 343p. This document constitutes the WAC 173-216 State Waste Discharge Permit application for six W-252 liquid effluent streams at the Hanford Site.  Appendices B through H correspond to Section B through H in the permit application form. Within each appendix, sections correspond directly to the respective questions on the application form.  The appendices include: Product or service information; Plant operational characteristics; Water consumption and waterloss; Wastewater information; Stormwater; Other information; and Site assessment.
#|U.S. Department of Interior, U.S. Geological Survey.  The Strategy for Improving Water-Quality Monitoring in the United States--- Final Report of the Intergovernmental Task Force on Monitoring Water Quality (Open-File Report 95-742).  Intergovernmental Task Force on Monitoring Water Quality (1992-1996).
#|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Effluent Guidelines Div.  Guidance for Establishing Relief from Effluent Limitations for the Coal Mining Point Source Category.  1995.  28p. The memorandum offers guidance on the application of the exemption clause contained in the BPT and NSPS regulation for coal mining point source category.
#|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Engineering and Analysis Div.  Preliminary Data Summary of the Metal Finishing Industry.  Contract Number:EPA-821-R-94-006.  NTIS/PB95-187126, 51p.  The Engineering and Analysis Division (EAD) of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has conducted a preliminary study to determine the applicability, usage, and utility of the metal finishing regulation.  A review of metal finishing must consider the impact of the promulgation of a new regulation for metal products and machinery which will control wastewater discharges from the same and similar processes as presently controlled by metal finishing and electroplating guidelines and standards.  The study summarizes the preliminary data collection for the MP&M rulemaking. EAD reviewed existing data and information from a variety of sources, including development documents, data summaries, and documents in the rulemaking records for related categories. EPA also conducted a survey of pretreatment coordinators on the utility of the metal finishing effluent guidelines and standards. The study offers options to accommodate the MP&M rule considering the inherent overlap between this rule and existing metal finishing rules and how the existing rules can be improved to make them more practicable by permit authorities.
#|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Office of Water.  (1994).  Great Lakes Water Quality Initiative Technical Support Document for the Procedure to Determine Bioaccumulation Factors, July 1994.  The purpose of this document is to provide the technical information and rational in support of the proposed procedures to determine bioaccumulation factors (BAFs). This document contains six sections: (1) Introduction; (2) BAFs based on the concentration of the freely dissolved chemical in water; (3) Prediction of bioconcentration factors (BCFs); (4) Food chain multipliers based on the 1993 Gobas model; (5) BAFs from biota-sediment accumulation factor (BSAF) measurements; (6) Bioaccumulation Equivalency Factors (BEFs); and (7) Derivation of BAFs for twenty-two chemicals. Bioaccumulation factors are needed to determine both human and wildlife Tier I water quality criteria and Tier II values. Also, they are used to define Bioaccumulative Chemicals of Concern among the Great Lakes Initiative universe of pollutants.
#|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Office of Water.  (1995).  Great Lakes Water Quality Initiative Technical Support Document for Wildlife Criteria.  March, 1995.  60p. The purpose of the document is to provide technical information and the rationale for the procedure to derive chemical-specific water quality criteria to protect wildlife species. The water quality criteria for wildlife are surface water concentrations of toxicants that will cause no significant reduction in the viability or usefulness (in a commercial or recreational sense) of a population of exposed animals utilizing waters of the Great Lakes System as a drinking and/or foraging source over several generations.
#|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Office of Water.  (1995).  Great Lakes Water Quality Initiative Technical Support Document for the Procedure to Determine Bioaccumulation Factors.  The purpose of the document is to provide the technical information and rationale in support of the methods to determine bioaccumulation factors. Bioaccumulation factors, together with the quantity of aquatic organisms eaten and the percent lipid, determine the extent to which people and wildlife are exposed to chemicals through the consumption of aquatic organisms. Bioaccumulation factors are needed to determine both human health and wildlife Tier I water quality criteria and human health Tier II values. Also, they are used to define Bioaccumulative Chemicals of Concern among the Great Lakes Initiative universe of pollutants.
#|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Office of Water.  (1995).  Great Lakes Water Quality Initiative Technical Support Document for Wildlife Criteria.  The purpose of the document is to provide technical information and the rationale for the procedure to derive chemical-specific water quality criteria to protect wildlife species. The water quality criteria for wildlife are surface water concentrations of toxicants that will cause no significant reduction in the viability or usefulness (in a commercial or recreational sense) of a population of exposed animals utilizing waters of the Great Lakes System as a drinking and/or foraging source over several generations.  See also PB95-187324 and PB95-187340.
#|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Office of Water.  (1995).  Great Lakes Water Quality Initiative Criteria Documents for the Protection of Human Health.  The document presents the dangers to human health for several Great Lakes pollutants.  See also PB95-187290 and PB95-187316.
#|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Office of Water.  (1995).  Great Lakes Water Quality Initiative Criteria Documents for the Protection of Wildlife: DDT, Mercury, 2,3,7,8-TCDD, PCBs.  March, 1995.  89p.  The document presents water quality criteria for wildlife protection from mercury, DDT, 2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (2,3,7,8-TCDD), and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB's).
#|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Office of Water.  (1993).  Great Lakes Water Quality Initiative Criteria Documents for the Protection of Wildlife (proposed): DDT, Mercury, 2,3,7,8-TCDD, PCBs.
#|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Office of Water.  (1993).  Great Lakes Water Quality Initiative Criteria Documents for the Protection of Human Health (February 1993 Draft). TD3: The document outlines the human health criteria for: Benzene, Chlordane, Chlorobenzene, Cyanides, DDT, Dieldrin, 2,4-Dimethylphenol, 2,4-Dinitrophenol, Heptachlor, Hexachlorobenzene, Hexachloroethane, Lindane, Mercury, Methylene chloride, PCBs, Pentachlorophenol, 2,3,7,8-TCDD, Toluene, Toxaphene, and Trichloroethylene.
#|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Office of Water.  (1995).  Great Lakes Water Quality Initiative Criteria Documents for the Protection of Aquatic Life in Ambient Water.  TD3: The document presents water quality criteria for aquatic life in the Great Lakes under the Great Lakes Water Quality Initiative.  See also PB95-187274 and PB95-187290.
#|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Office of Water.  Federal Register Volume 59, No. 241, Friday, December 16, 1994. Notices.  Reissuance of the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) General Permit for Dewatering and Petroleum Fuel Contaminated Ground/Storm Waters in the State of Florida.  16 Dec 94.  17p.  This final reissued NPDES general permit contains effluent limitations, prohibitions, reporting requirements and other conditions on facilities which discharge uncontaminated groundwater associated with dewatering or treated groundwater and/or storm water incidental to the groundwater cleanup operation which have been contaminated by automotive gasoline, aviation and/or diesel fuels.
#|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Office of Water.  Federal Register Volume 60, No. 189, Friday, September 29, 1995, Notices.  Part 14.  Environmental Protection Agency.  Final National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System Storm Water Multi-Sector General Permit for Industrial Activities; Notice.  Report No.: EPA/833/Z-95/003.  29 Sep 95.  517p.  EPA published a final storm water general permit with innovative pollution prevention requirements applicable to most American industries (Federal Register Vol.60, No. 189) The multi-sector storm water permit is a general providing National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NYPDES) coverage for 29 different industrial sectors under one permit and is part of EPA's program to give permittees flexibility and incentives to pursue effective storm water controls tailored to their local situation.
#|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Office of Water.  Federal Register Volume 63, Number 6, Friday, January 9, 1998, Proposed Rules.  Part 2.  Environmental Protection Agency: 40 CFR Parts 122 and 123 National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System. Proposed Regulations for Revision of the Water Pollution Control Program Addressing Storm Water Discharges. Proposed Rule.  Report No.: EPA/833/Z-98/001, 9 Jan 98, 114p.  The National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) existing storm water program (Phase I) is resulting in significant improvement of surface water quality in the United States by reducing polluted runoff from a large number of priority sources, including major industrial facilities, large and medium city storm sewers as well as construction sites that disturb 5 or more acres. Today's proposed NPDES storm water regulations (Phase II), which will be finalized by March 1, 1999, would expand this existing national program to smaller municipalities and construction sites that disturb 1 to 5 acres.
#|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Office of Water.  NPDES Industrial Permit Abstracts 1993.  Contract Number: EPA-833-B-93-005.  NTIS/PB94-155629, 488p. The updated permit abstracts version was compiled in recognition of the need for abstracts of recent permits to reflect NPDES program progress and recent policies and initiatives. These abstracts were written based on voluntary submissions of NPDES industrial wastewater permits, requested from States and EPA regional permitting authorities. The edition of the abstracts includes permits from 37 states.  The permit abstracts are organized into five sections:  general information, permit summary information, outfall information, special conditions information, and dates.  These abstracts are indexed by the following subjects, to provide quick searches:  Type of limitations/monitoring conditions, such as best professional judgement or state water quality standards; Type of species condition, such as requirements for a best management practices plan or a storm water plan; Effluent guidelines; Pollutant; Receiving water; and Type of industry, i.e., SIC code. The remaining discussion is on the contents of the five sections of the abstract.
#|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Office of Wastewater Management.  NPDES Permit Writers' Manual.  Report No.: EPA/833/B-96/003, Dec 96, 297p.  The purpose of this manual is to provide the basic regulatory framework and technical considerations that support the development wastewater discharge permits as required under the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) Program. It is designed for new permit writers, but may also serve as a reference for experienced permit writers. In addition, the manual will serve as a useful source of information for anyone interested in learning about the legal process and technical aspects of developing NPDES permits.
#|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Office of Wastewater Enforcement and Compliance. Permit Compliance System (PCS).  NTIS/PB93-503969. The Permit Compliance System (PCS) Enforcement Action File contains information regarding actions taken in the 2-year period of July 1, 1991, to June 30, 1993, in response to violations of effluent parameters limits, non-receipt of Discharge Monitoring Reports (DMRs) or Compliance Schedule reports, or failure to complete Compliance Schedule milestones for all active permitted facilities. Enforcement action data include the events in violation and the dates of occurrence, the type of enforcement action(s), and the dates they were taken, and the current status of each action.
#|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Office of Wastewater Enforcement and Compliance. Permit Compliance System (PCS) Enforcement Action National File (on Diskette).  NTIS/PB97-502314. TD3:  The Permit Compliance System (PCS) is an EPA national computerized management information system that records water-discharge permit data on more than 64,000 wastewater treatment facilities nationwide. This system automates entry, updating, and retrieval of National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) data and tracks permit issuance, permit limits, monitoring data, and other data pertaining to facilities regulated under NPDES.  There are approximately 49,000 industrial facilities and 15,000 municipal facilities regulated by NPDES.  The Enforcement Action File contains information regarding actions taken in the most recent 2-year period, in response to violations of effluent parameters limits, non-receipt of Discharge Monitoring Reports (DMRs) or Compliance Schedule reports, or failure to complete Compliance Schedule milestones for all active permitted facilities. Enforcement action data include the events in violation and the dates of occurrence, the type of enforcement action(s), and the dates they were taken, and the current status of each action. This data is updated twice a year.
#|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Office of Wastewater Enforcement and Compliance. Permit Compliance System (PCS) Enforcement Action File EPA Region 1 (for Microcomputers) (Date of Coverage: September 1993).  The Permit Compliance System (PCS) Enforcement Action File contains information regarding actions taken in the 2-year period of July 1, 1991, to June 30, 1993, in response to violations of effluent parameters limits, non-receipt of Discharge Monitoring Reports (DMRs) or Compliance Schedule reports, or failure to complete Compliance Schedule milestones for all active permitted facilities. Enforcement action data include the events in violation and the dates of occurrence, the type of enforcement action(s), and the dates they were taken, and the current status of each action.
#|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Office of Wastewater Enforcement and Compliance. Permit Compliance System (PCS) Enforcement Action File EPA Region 2 (for Microcomputers) (Date of Coverage: September 1993).  The Permit Compliance System (PCS) Enforcement Action File contains information regarding actions taken in the 2-year period of July 1, 1991, to June 30, 1993, in response to violations of effluent parameters limits, non-receipt of Discharge Monitoring Reports (DMRs) or Compliance Schedule reports, or failure to complete Compliance Schedule milestones for all active permitted facilities. Enforcement action data include the events in violation and the dates of occurrence, the type of enforcement action(s), and the dates they were taken, and the current status of each action.
#|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Office of Wastewater Enforcement and Compliance. Permit Compliance System (PCS) Enforcement Action File EPA Region 3 (for Microcomputers) (Date of Coverage: September 1993).  NTIS/PB93-503894. TD3:  The Permit Compliance System (PCS) Enforcement Action File contains information regarding actions taken in the 2-year period of July 1, 1991, to June 30, 1993, in response to violations of effluent parameters limits, non-receipt of Discharge Monitoring Reports (DMRs) or Compliance Schedule reports, or failure to complete Compliance Schedule milestones for all active permitted facilities. Enforcement action data include the events in violation and the dates of occurrence, the type of enforcement action(s), and the dates they were taken, and the current status of each action.
#|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Office of Wastewater Enforcement and Compliance. Permit Compliance System (PCS) Enforcement Action File EPA Region 4 (for Microcomputers) (Date of Coverage: September 1993).  The Permit Compliance System (PCS) Enforcement Action File contains information regarding actions taken in the 2-year period of July 1, 1991, to June 30, 1993, in response to violations of effluent parameters limits, non-receipt of Discharge Monitoring Reports (DMRs) or Compliance Schedule reports, or failure to complete Compliance Schedule milestones for all active permitted facilities. Enforcement action data include the events in violation and the dates of occurrence, the type of enforcement action(s), and the dates they were taken, and the current status of each action.
#|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Office of Wastewater Enforcement and Compliance. Permit Compliance System (PCS) Enforcement Action File EPA Region 5 (for Microcomputers) (Date of Coverage: September 1993).  The Permit Compliance System (PCS) Enforcement Action File contains information regarding actions taken in the 2-year period of July 1, 1991, to June 30, 1993, in response to violations of effluent parameters limits, non-receipt of Discharge Monitoring Reports (DMRs) or Compliance Schedule reports, or failure to complete Compliance Schedule milestones for all active permitted facilities. Enforcement action data include the events in violation and the dates of occurrence, the type of enforcement action(s), and the dates they were taken, and the current status of each action.
#|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Office of Wastewater Enforcement and Compliance. Permit Compliance System (PCS) Enforcement Action File EPA Region 6 (for Microcomputers) (Date of Coverage: September 1993).  The Permit Compliance System (PCS) Enforcement Action File contains information regarding actions taken in the 2-year period of July 1, 1991, to June 30, 1993, in response to violations of effluent parameters limits, non-receipt of Discharge Monitoring Reports (DMRs) or Compliance Schedule reports, or failure to complete Compliance Schedule milestones for all active permitted facilities. Enforcement action data include the events in violation and the dates of occurrence, the type of enforcement action(s), and the dates they were taken, and the current status of each action.
#|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Office of Wastewater Enforcement and Compliance. Permit Compliance System (PCS) Enforcement Action File EPA Region 7 (for Microcomputers) (Date of Coverage: September 1993).  The Permit Compliance System (PCS) Enforcement Action File contains information regarding actions taken in the 2-year period of July 1, 1991, to June 30, 1993, in response to violations of effluent parameters limits, non-receipt of Discharge Monitoring Reports (DMRs) or Compliance Schedule reports, or failure to complete Compliance Schedule milestones for all active permitted facilities. Enforcement action data include the events in violation and the dates of occurrence, the type of enforcement action(s), and the dates they were taken, and the current status of each action.
#|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Office of Wastewater Enforcement and Compliance. Permit Compliance System (PCS) Enforcement Action File EPA Region 8 (for Microcomputers) (Date of Coverage: September 1993).  The Permit Compliance System (PCS) Enforcement Action File contains information regarding actions taken in the 2-year period of July 1, 1991, to June 30, 1993, in response to violations of effluent parameters limits, non-receipt of Discharge Monitoring Reports (DMRs) or Compliance Schedule reports, or failure to complete Compliance Schedule milestones for all active permitted facilities. Enforcement action data include the events in violation and the dates of occurrence, the type of enforcement action(s), and the dates they were taken, and the current status of each action.
#|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Office of Wastewater Enforcement and Compliance. Permit Compliance System (PCS) Enforcement Action File EPA Region 9 (for Microcomputers) (Date of Coverage: September 1993).  The Permit Compliance System (PCS) Enforcement Action File contains information regarding actions taken in the 2-year period of July 1, 1991, to June 30, 1993, in response to violations of effluent parameters limits, non-receipt of Discharge Monitoring Reports (DMRs) or Compliance Schedule reports, or failure to complete Compliance Schedule milestones for all active permitted facilities. Enforcement action data include the events in violation and the dates of occurrence, the type of enforcement action(s), and the dates they were taken, and the current status of each action.
#|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Office of Wastewater Enforcement and Compliance. Permit Compliance System (PCS) Enforcement Action File EPA Region 10 (for Microcomputers) (Date of Coverage: September 1993).  The Permit Compliance System (PCS) Enforcement Action File contains information regarding actions taken in the 2-year period of July 1, 1991,to June 30, 1993, in response to violations of effluent parameters limits, non-receipt of Discharge Monitoring Reports (DMRs) or Compliance Schedule reports, or failure to complete Compliance Schedule milestones for all active permitted facilities. Enforcement action data include the events in violation and the dates of occurrence, the type of enforcement action(s), and the dates they were taken, and the current status of each action.
#|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Office of Solid Waste.  Summary of Data Presented in the Background Document for Effluent Limitations Guidelines and Standards, Ore Mining and Dressing Point Source Category.  Contract Number: EPA-530-R-93-023.  NTIS/PB94-113388, 55p.  The document recompiles data from a study of wastewaters generated at ore and mining and dressing sites to support the development of national effluent guidelines to be included in NPDES permits issued for those facilities.  The ore mining and dressing category includes extraction and beneficiation operations in the hard rock and mineral mining sectors. These sectors include iron, copper, lead, zinc, gold, silver, molybdenum, aluminum, tungsten, nickel, vanadium, mercury, uranium, antimony, titanium, and platinum.  The summary contains the specific types of operations withineach sector, the organics analyzed, the metals analyzed, and a narrative description of the results of wastewater characterization for each process.  The EPA's office of solid waste has recompiled the data contained in the effluent guidlines for possible use in its effort to develop a rational mining program.
#|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Office of Water.  Whole Effluent Toxicity (WET) Control Policy: Policy for the Development of Effluent Limitations in National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System Permits to Control Whole Effluent Toxicity for the Protection of Aquatic Life. Contract Number: EPA-833-B-94-002.  NTIS/PB94-214673, 80p. This policy is intended (1) to promote uniform, nationwide compliance with statutory and regulatory requirements for the control of WET, and (2) to assist permit writers in implementing these requirements.  The water quality permitting regulations, as well as the statutory provisions restated in this policy document, are fully binding on EPA Regions as well as States authorized to administer the NPDES program. This policy also provides guidance to permit writers on implementation of the statutory and regulatory requirements for the control of WET. This policy addresses some specific areas where questions have arisen regarding the implementation of statutory and regulatory requirements.  It does not address all areas where the regulatory agency will exercise judgment in the implementation of statutory and regulatory requirements.
#|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Office of Wastewater Enforcement and Compliance. Permit Compliance System (PCS) Facility Address and Permit File EPA Region 10 (AK, ID, OR. WA) (on Diskette).  NTIS/PB97-502306.  The Permit Compliance System (PCS) is an EPA national computerized management information system that records water-discharge permit data on more than 64,000 wastewater treatment facilities nationwide. This system automates entry, updating, and retrieval of National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) data and tracks permit issuance, permit limits, monitoring data, and other data pertaining to facilities regulated under NPDES.  There are approximately 49,000 industrial facilities and 15,000 municipal facilities regulated by NPDES. The Permit Compliance System (PCS) Facility Address and Permit Information File contains primary mailing address information as well as permit number, facility type, and cognizant official for all active NPDES permitted facilities, general facility and permit events (e.g., issuance and expiration dates, type of ownership code, SIC code, and location including longitude and latitude) for all active NPDES permitted facilities for the most recent year. This data is updated twice a year.
#|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Office of Wastewater Enforcement and Compliance. Permit Compliance System (PCS) Facility Address and Permit File EPA Region 9 (AZ, CA, HI, NV, American Samoa, Guam) (on Diskette).  NTIS/PB97-502371.  The Permit Compliance System (PCS) is an EPA national computerized management information system that records water-discharge permit data on more than 64,000 wastewater treatment facilities nationwide. This system automates entry, updating, and retrieval of National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) data and tracks permit issuance, permit limits, monitoring data, and other data pertaining to facilities regulated under NPDES.  There are approximately 49,000 industrial facilities and 15,000 municipal facilities regulated by NPDES. The Permit Compliance System (PCS) Facility Address and Permit Information File contains primary mailing address information as well as permit number, facility type, and cognizant official for all active NPDES permitted facilities, general facility and permit events (e.g., issuance and expiration dates, type of ownership code, SIC code, and location including longitude and latitude) for all active NPDES permitted facilities for the most recent year.
#|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Office of Wastewater Enforcement and Compliance. Permit Compliance System (PCS) Facility Address and Permit File EPA Region 8 (CO, MT, ND, SD, UT, WY) (on Diskette).  NTIS/PB97-502363.  The Permit Compliance System (PCS) is an EPA national computerized management information system that records water-discharge permit data on more than 64,000 wastewater treatment facilities nationwide. This system automates entry, updating, and retrieval of National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) data and tracks permit issuance, permit limits, monitoring data, and other data pertaining to facilities regulated under NPDES.  There are approximately 49,000 industrial facilities and 15,000 municipal facilities regulated by NPDES. The Permit Compliance System (PCS) Facility Address and Permit Information File contains primary mailing address information as well as permit number, facility type, and cognizant official for all active NPDES permitted facilities, general facility and permit events (e.g., issuance and expiration dates, type of ownership code, SIC code, and location including longitude and latitude) for all active NPDES permitted facilities for the most recent year.
#|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Office of Wastewater Enforcement and Compliance. Permit Compliance System (PCS) Facility Address and Permit File EPA Region 7 (IA, KS, MO, NE) (on Diskette).  NTIS/PB97-502355.  The Permit Compliance System (PCS) is an EPA national computerized management information system that records water-discharge permit data on more than 64,000 wastewater treatment facilities nationwide. This system automates entry, updating, and retrieval of National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) data and tracks permit issuance, permit limits, monitoring data, and other data pertaining to facilities regulated under NPDES.  There are approximately 49,000 industrial facilities and 15,000 municipal facilities regulated by NPDES. The Permit Compliance System (PCS) Facility Address and Permit Information File contains primary mailing address information as well as permit number, facility type, and cognizant official for all active NPDES permitted facilities, general facility and permit events (e.g., issuance and expiration dates, type of ownership code, SIC code, and location including longitude and latitude) for all active NPDES permitted facilities for the most recent year.
#|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Office of Wastewater Enforcement and Compliance. Permit Compliance System (PCS) Facility Address and Permit File EPA Region 6 (AR, LA, NM. OK TX) (on Diskette).  NTIS/PB97-502348.  The Permit Compliance System (PCS) is an EPA national computerized management information system that records water-discharge permit data on more than 64,000 wastewater treatment facilities nationwide. This system automates entry, updating, and retrieval of National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) data and tracks permit issuance, permit limits, monitoring data, and other data pertaining to facilities regulated under NPDES.  There are approximately 49,000 industrial facilities and 15,000 municipal facilities regulated by NPDES. The Permit Compliance System (PCS) Facility Address and Permit Information File contains primary mailing address information as well as permit number, facility type, and cognizant official for all active NPDES permitted facilities, general facility and permit events (e.g., issuance and expiration dates, type of ownership code, SIC code, and location including longitude and latitude) for all active NPDES permitted facilities for the most recent year. This data is updated twice a year.
#|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Office of Wastewater Enforcement and Compliance  Permit Compliance System (PCS) Facility Address and Permit File EPA Region 5 (IL, IN, MI, MN, OH, WI) (on Diskette).  NTIS/PB97-502322.  The Permit Compliance System (PCS) is an EPA national computerized management information system that records water-discharge permit data on more than 64,000 wastewater treatment facilities nationwide. This system automates entry, updating, and retrieval of National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) data and tracks permit issuance, permit limits, monitoring data, and other data pertaining to facilities regulated under NPDES.  There are approximately 49,000 industrial facilities and 15,000 municipal facilities regulated by NPDES. The Permit Compliance System (PCS) Facility Address and Permit Information File contains primary mailing address information as well as permit number, facility type, and cognizant official for all active NPDES permitted facilities, general facility and permit events (e.g., issuance and expiration dates, type of ownership code, SIC code, and location including longitude and latitude) for all active NPDES permitted facilities for the most recent year. This data is updated twice a year.
#|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Office of Wastewater Enforcement and Compliance. Permit Compliance System (PCS) Facility Address and Permit File EPA Region 4 (AL, FL, GA, KY, MS, NC, SC, TN) (on Diskette).  NTIS/PB97-502389.  The Permit Compliance System (PCS) is an EPA national computerized management information system that records water-discharge permit data on more than 64,000 wastewater treatment facilities nationwide. This system automates entry, updating, and retrieval of National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) data and tracks permit issuance, permit limits, monitoring data, and other data pertaining to facilities regulated under NPDES.  There are approximately 49,000 industrial facilities and 15,000 municipal facilities regulated by NPDES. The Permit Compliance System (PCS) Facility Address and Permit Information File contains primary mailing address information as well as permit number, facility type, and cognizant official for all active NPDES permitted facilities, general facility and permit events (e.g., issuance and expiration dates, type of ownership code, SIC code, and location including longitude and latitude) for all active NPDES permitted facilities for the most recent year. This data is updated twice a year.
#|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Office of Wastewater Enforcement and Compliance. Permit Compliance System (PCS) Facility Address and Permit File EPA Region 3 (DE, DC, MD. PA, VA) (on Diskette). NTIS/PB97-502298.  The Permit Compliance System (PCS) is an EPA national computerized management information system that records water-discharge permit data on more than 64,000 wastewater treatment facilities nationwide. This system automates entry, updating, and retrieval of National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) data and tracks permit issuance, permit limits, monitoring data, and other data pertaining to facilities regulated under NPDES.  There are approximately 49,000 industrial facilities and 15,000 municipal facilities regulated by NPDES. The Permit Compliance System (PCS) Facility Address and Permit Information File contains primary mailing address information as well as permit number, facility type, and cognizant official for all active NPDES permitted facilities, general facility and permit events (e.g., issuance and expiration dates, type of ownership code, SIC code, and location including longitude and latitude) for all active NPDES permitted facilities for the most recent year. This data is updated twice a year.
#|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Office of Wastewater Enforcement and Compliance. Permit Compliance System (PCS) Facility Address and Permit File EPA Region 2 (NJ, NY, PR, VI) (on Diskette).  NTIS/PB97-502280.  The Permit Compliance System (PCS) is an EPA national computerized management information system that records water-discharge permit data on more than 64,000 wastewater treatment facilities nationwide. This system automates entry, updating, and retrieval of National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) data and tracks permit issuance, permit limits, monitoring data, and other data pertaining to facilities regulated under NPDES.  There are approximately 49,000 industrial facilities and 15,000 municipal facilities regulated by NPDES. The Permit Compliance System (PCS) Facility Address and Permit Information File contains primary mailing address information as well as permit number, facility type, and cognizant official for all active NPDES permitted facilities, general facility and permit events (e.g., issuance and expiration dates, type of ownership code, SIC code, and location including longitude and latitude) for all active NPDES permitted facilities for the most recent year. This data is updated twice a year.
#|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Office of Wastewater Enforcement and Compliance. Permit Compliance System (PCS) Facility Address and Permit File EPA Region 1 (CT, ME. MA, NH, RI, VT) (on Diskette).  NTIS/PB97-502272.  The Permit Compliance System (PCS) is an EPA national computerized management information system that records water-discharge permit data on more than 64,000 wastewater treatment facilities nationwide. This system automates entry, updating, and retrieval of National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) data and tracks permit issuance, permit limits, monitoring data, and other data pertaining to facilities regulated under NPDES.  There are approximately 49,000 industrial facilities and 15,000 municipal facilities regulated by NPDES. The Permit Compliance System (PCS) Facility Address and Permit Information File contains primary mailing address information as well as permit number, facility type, and cognizant official for all active NPDES permitted facilities, general facility and permit events (e.g., issuance and expiration dates, type of ownership code, SIC code, and location including logitude and latitude) for all active NPDES permitted facilities for the most recent year. This data is updated twice a year.
#|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Office of Wastewater Enforcement and Compliance. Permit Compliance System (PCS) Facility Address and Permit Information File National Listing of Major Facilities (on Diskette).  NTIS/PB97-502264.  The Permit Compliance System (PCS) is an Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) national computerized management information system that records water-dicharge permit data on more than 64,000 wastewater treatment facilities nationwide. This system automates entry, updating, and retrieval of National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) data and tracks permit issuance, permit limits, monitoring data, and other data pertaining to facilities regulated under NPDES. The Permit Compliance System (PCS) Facility Address and Permit Information File contains primary mailing address information as well as permit number, facility type, and cognizant official for all active NPDES permitted facilities, general facility and permit events (e.g., issuance and expiration dates, type of ownership code, SIC code, and location including longitude and latitude) for all active NPDES permitted facilities for the most recent year.  There are approximately 49,000 industrial facilities and 15,000 municipal facilities regulated by NPDES.  This data is updated twice a year. This diskette contains only major facilities which are facilities having a design or actual flow of one million gallons per day or greater, a service population of 10,000 or greater, or a significant impact on water quality (i.e., with a potential for toxic discharge, located close to a drinking water intake, discharging into stressed receiving waters, or requiring advanced treatment).  Approximately 7100 permits are issued to major facilities. Municipal and non-municipal facilities not meeting the above requirements are categorized as minor.
#|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Office of Water.  Pollution Prevention (P2) Guidance Manual for the Pesticide Formulating, Packaging, and Repackaging Industry: Implementing the P2 Alternative (Final rept).  Report No.: EPA/821/B-98/017, Jun 98, 304p.  This Pollution Prevention (P2) manual discusses the applicability and implementation of effluent limitations guidelines and standards covering the pesticide formulating, packaging, and repackaging (PFPR) industry. The main purpose of the manual is to provide guidance to industry and permitters in the process of complying with this rule, in particular, complying with the P2 Alternative Option.
#|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Office of Wastewater.  Permit Compliance System (PCS) Facility Inspection File EPA Region 10 (for Microcomputers).  NTIS/PB93-504363.  TD3:  The Permit Compliance System Facility Inspection File contains data from the 2-year period of July 1, 1991, to June 30, 1993, regarding inspections for all active NPDES permitted facilities. For each permitted facility there may be multiple inspections and thus, multiple sets of inspections data.
#|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Office of Wastewater.  Permit Compliance System (PCS) Facility Inspection File EPA Region 9 (for Microcomputers).  NTIS/PB93-504355.  TD3:  The Permit Compliance System Facility Inspection File contains data from the 2-year period of July 1, 1991, to June 30, 1993, regarding inspections for all active NPDES permitted facilities. For each permitted facility there may be multiple inspections and thus, multiple sets of inspections data.
#|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Office of Wastewater.  Permit Compliance System (PCS) Facility Inspection File EPA Region 8 (for Microcomputers).  NTIS/PB93-504348.  TD3:  The Permit Compliance System Facility Inspection File contains data from the 2-year period of July 1, 1991, to June 30, 1993, regarding inspections for all active NPDES permitted facilities. For each permitted facility there may be multiple inspections and thus, multiple sets of inspections data.  Data file.
#|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Office of Enforcement and Compliance Assurance.  Permit Compliance System (PCS) Inspection National File (for Microcomputers) Jun 96.  Order number SUB-5252.  The Permit Compliance System (PCS) is an EPA national computerized management information system that records water-discharge permit data on more than 64,000 wastewater treatment facilities nationwide.  This system automates entry, updating, and retrieval of National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) data and tracks permit issuance, permit limits, monitoring data, and other data pertaining to facilities regulated under NPDES.  There are approximately 49,000 industrial facilities and 15,000 municipal facilities regulated by NPDES.  The Facility Inspection File contains data from the most recent 2-year period, regarding inspections for all active NPDES permitted facilities.  For each permitted facility there may be multiple inspections and thus, multiple sets of inspections.
#|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Office of Wastewater Enforcement and Compliance.  Permit Compliance System (PCS) Significant Non-Compliance List (for Microcomputers).  The EPA Permit Compliance System (PCS) is a natioal computerized management information system which automates entry, updating, and retrieval of National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) data and tracks permit issuance, permit limits, monitoring data, and other data pertaining to wastewater treatment facilities regulated under NPDES.  There are approximately 49,000 industrial wastewater treatment facilities and 15,000 municipal facilities regulated by NPDES.  The Permit Compliance System (PCS) Significant Non-Compliance File contains a list of major permittees currently in Significant Non-Compliance (SNC) for the most recent calendar quarter.  A facility may have failed to meet a milestone date to upgrade the quality of its effluent discharge or failed to submit required Discharge Monitoring Reports.  Significant Non-Compliance criteria are used to identify important violations or patterns of noncompliance, to establish enforcement priorities, and to comply with special reporting requirements.
#|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Permit Compliance System (PCS) Compliance Schedule File EPA Region 3 (for Microcomputers) (Date of Coverage: September 1993).  NTIS/PB93-504090.  TD3:  The Permit Compliance System (PCS) Compliance Schedule Violation File contains data from the 2-year period of July 1, 1991, to June 30, 1993, regarding a set of compliance schedule events. These schedule events include milestones a permitted facility must accomplish to upgrade the quality of its effluent discharge when such milestones have been established as a condition for granting a permit or when complying with an enforcement action.
#|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Permit Compliance System (PCS) Compliance Schedule File EPA Region 1 (for Microcomputers) (Date of Coverage: September 1993).  NTIS/PB93-504074. The Permit Compliance System (PCS) Compliance Schedule Violation File contains data from the 2-year period of July 1, 1991, to June 30, 1993, regarding a set of compliance schedule events. These schedule events include milestones a permitted facility must accomplish to upgrade the quality of its effluent discharge when such milestones have been established as a condition for granting a permit or when complying with an enforcement action.
#|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Permit Compliance System (PCS) Compliance Schedule File EPA Region 2 (for Microcomputers) (Date of Coverage: September 1993).  NTIS/PB93-504082. The Permit Compliance System (PCS) Compliance Schedule Violation File contains data from the 2-year period of July 1, 1991, to June 30, 1993, regarding a set of compliance schedule events. These schedule events include milestones a permitted facility must accomplish to upgrade the quality of its effluent discharge when such milestones have been established as a condition for granting a permit or when complying with an enforcement action.
#|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Permit Compliance System (PCS) Facility Inspection File EPA Region 7 (for Microcomputers).  NTIS/PB93-504330. The Permit Compliance System Facility Inspection File contains data from the 2-year period of July 1, 1991, to June 30, 1993, regarding inspections for all active NPDES permitted facilities. For each permitted facility there may be multiple inspections and thus, multiple sets of inspections data.
#|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Permit Compliance System (PCS) Facility Inspection File EPA Region 6 (for Microcomputers).  NTIS/PB93-504322. The Permit Compliance System Facility Inspection File contains data from the 2-year period of July 1, 1991, to June 30, 1993, regarding inspections for all active NPDES permitted facilities. For each permitted facility there may be multiple inspections and thus, multiple sets of inspections data.
#|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Permit Compliance System (PCS) Facility Inspection File EPA Region 5 (for Microcomputers).  NTIS/PB93-504314. The Permit Compliance System Facility Inspection File contains data from the 2-year period of July 1, 1991, to June 30, 1993, regarding inspections for all active NPDES permitted facilities. For each permitted facility there may be multiple inspections and thus, multiple sets of inspections data.
#|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Permit Compliance System (PCS) Facility Inspection File EPA Region 4 (for Microcomputers).  NTIS/PB93-504306. The Permit Compliance System Facility Inspection File contains data from the 2-year period of July 1, 1991, to June 30, 1993, regarding inspections for all active NPDES permitted facilities. For each permitted facility there may be multiple inspections and thus, multiple sets of inspections data.
#|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Permit Compliance System (PCS) Facility Inspection File EPA Region 3 (for Microcomputers).  NTIS/PB93-504298. The Permit Compliance System Facility Inspection File contains data from the 2-year period of July 1, 1991, to June 30, 1993, regarding inspections for all active NPDES permitted facilities. For each permitted facility there may be multiple inspections and thus, multiple sets of inspections data.
#|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Permit Compliance System (PCS) Facility Inspection File EPA Region 2 (for Microcomputers).  NTIS/PB93-504280. The Permit Compliance System Facility Inspection File contains data from the 2-year period of July 1, 1991, to June 30, 1993, regarding inspections for all active NPDES permitted facilities. For each permitted facility there may be multiple inspections and thus, multiple sets of inspections data.
#|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Permit Compliance System (PCS) Facility Inspection File EPA Region 1 (for Microcomputers).  NTIS/PB93-504272. The Permit Compliance System Facility Inspection File contains data from the 2-year period of July 1, 1991, to June 30, 1993, regarding inspections for all active NPDES permitted facilities. For each permitted facility there may be multiple inspections and thus, multiple sets of inspections data.
#|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Permit Compliance System (PCS) Compliance Schedule File EPA Region 10 (for Microcomputers) (Date of Coverage: September 1993).  Order Info.:  NTIS/PB93-504165.  TD3:  The Permit Compliance System (PCS) Compliance Schedule Violation File contains data from the 2-year period of July 1, 1991, to June 30, 1993, regarding a set of compliance schedule events.  These schedule events include milestones a permitted facility must accomplish to upgrade the quality of its effluent discharge when such milestones have been established as a condition for granting a permit or when complying with an enforcement action.
#|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Permit Compliance System (PCS) Compliance Schedule File EPA Region 9 (for Microcomputers) (Date of Coverage: September 1993).  NTIS/PB93-504157. TD3:  The Permit Compliance System (PCS) Compliance Schedule Violation File contains data from the 2-year period of July 1, 1991, to June 30, 1993, regarding a set of compliance schedule events.  These schedule events include milestones a permitted facility must accomplish to upgrade the quality of its effluent discharge when such milestones have been established as a condition for granting a permit or when complying with an enforcement action.
#|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Permit Compliance System (PCS) Compliance Schedule File EPA Region 8 (for Microcomputers) (Date of Coverage: September 1993).  NTIS/PB93-504140. TD3:  The Permit Compliance System (PCS) Compliance Schedule Violation File contains data from the 2-year period of July 1, 1991, to June 30, 1993, regarding a set of compliance schedule events.  These schedule events include milestones a permitted facility must accomplish to upgrade the quality of its effluent discharge when such milestones have been established as a condition for granting a permit or when complying with an enforcement action.
#|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Permit Compliance System (PCS) Compliance Schedule File EPA Region 7 (for Microcomputers) (Date of Coverage: September 1993).  NTIS/PB93-504132. TD3:  The Permit Compliance System (PCS) Compliance Schedule Violation File contains data from the 2-year period of July 1, 1991, to June 30, 1993, regarding a set of compliance schedule events.  These schedule events include milestones a permitted facility must accomplish to upgrade the quality of its effluent discharge when such milestones have been established as a condition for granting a permit or when complying with an enforcement action.
#|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Permit Compliance System (PCS) Compliance Schedule File EPA Region 6 (for Microcomputers) (Date of Coverage: September 1993).  NTIS/PB93-504124. TD3:  The Permit Compliance System (PCS) Compliance Schedule Violation File contains data from the 2-year period of July 1, 1991, to June 30, 1993, regarding a set of compliance schedule events.  These schedule events include milestones a permitted facility must accomplish to upgrade the quality of its effluent discharge when such milestones have been established as a condition for granting a permit or when complying with an enforcement action.
#|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Permit Compliance System (PCS) Compliance Schedule File EPA Region 5 (for Microcomputers) (Date of Coverage: September 1993).  NTIS/PB93-504116. TD3:  The Permit Compliance System (PCS) Compliance Schedule Violation File contains data from the 2-year period of July 1, 1991, to June 30, 1993, regarding a set of compliance schedule events.  These schedule events include milestones a permitted facility must accomplish to upgrade the quality of its effluent discharge when such milestones have been established as a condition for granting a permit or when complying with an enforcement action.
#|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Permit Compliance System (PCS) Compliance Schedule File EPA Region 4 (for Microcomputers) (Date of Coverage: September 1993).  NTIS/PB93-504108. TD3:  The Permit Compliance System (PCS) Compliance Schedule Violation File contains data from the 2-year period of July 1, 1991, to June 30, 1993, regarding a set of compliance schedule events.  These schedule events include milestones a permitted facility must accomplish to upgrade the quality of its effluent discharge when such milestones have been established as a condition for granting a permit or when complying with an enforcement action.
#|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  1993.  Methods for measuring the acute toxicity of effluents and receiving waters to freshwater and marine organisms, 4th ed.  EPA/600/4-90-027F. Technical Report. Washington, DC.
#|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  1994.  Interim guidance on determination and use of water-effect ratios for metals.  EPA-823-B-94-001.  Washington, DC.
#|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  Development of Index of Biotic Integrity Expectations for the Ecoregions of Indiana. I. Central Corn Belt Plain. PB93149383XSP.  Environmental Protection Agency, Chicago, IL. Region V.  Nov 91. 105p. See also PB89-138440, PB85-184349, PB92-203959 and PB93-143683. The Clean Water Act Amendments of 1987 mandate the development of biological criteria for evaluating the nation's surface waters. The requirements of Section 304(a) was implemented in Indiana to determine water resource degradation. A total of 197 headwater and wading stream sites were sampled in the Central Corn Belt Plain ecoregion in order to develop and calibrate an Index of Biotic Integrity for use in Indiana. Based on inherent variance within the ecoregion, sub-basins were established based on the concept of natural areas as recognized by Homoya et al. (1985). Site specific data; locality information; and species specific scoring criteria for tolerance classification, trophic guilds, and reproductive guilds are included in the appendix.
#|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  ECOSAR: Software Program for Estimating the Toxicity of Industrial Chemicals to Aquatic Organisms (on diskette).  Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Pollution, Prevention, and Toxics.  February 1994.  This product contains a program designed to use structure activity relationships (SARs) to estimate the ecotoxicity of industrial chemicals to aquatic organisms. Originally developed to estimate the aquatic toxicity of chemicals reviewed by the U.S. Department Environmental Protection Agency in response to Premanufacture Notices mandated by Section 5 of the Toxic Substances Control Act, such estimations have been found to have wide use in hazard assessments, ecological risk assessments, and general aquatic toxicity.
#|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  EMMI (includes Water Methods and Guidance CD) (Environmental Monitoring Methods Index), Version 2.0 (Single User) (on Diskette). Software. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Office of Science and Technology. Jul 95. The EPA's Environmental Monitoring Methods Index (EMMI) software assists users in comparing and evaluating analytical methods applicable to environmental pollutants of interest. EMMI combines rapid search capabilities with a user-friendly interface. EMMI allows the user access to an extensive list of analytes and analytical methods. It provides CAS numbers, regulatory lists, and regulatory limits. The database also contains method abstracts that include sample collection, storage, preservation, preparation, extraction, and analysis information. EMMI also contains information on contact points within offices and organizations responsible for publishing the analytical methods or regulatory information contained in EMMI. EMMI Version 2.0 has more than tripled its size from Version 1.0. It currently contains information on more than 3,400 abstracts of analytical methods to include all EPA, NIOSH, and DOE methods and many from state government and universities. This update will also include the SW-846 Proposed Update III. The database contains more than 4,000 substances from 47 regulatory and non-regulatory lists. This includes substances from SARA, CERCLA, SDWA, CAA, and CWA, as well as substances from other agency lists. Comprehensive cross-reference databases are provided for more than 18,500 substances. One new feature provides method-matrix grouping to enable users to quickly find methods according to type of matrix, e.g. air, water, etc. Users can search for information in any one of the following categories: chemical names, trade names, or synonyms; CAS registry number; apparatus; analytical method number; regulatory origin; custodial organization; short or full title of the method; and matrix. EMMI is currently used throughout all levels of EPA and has a growing user community in the private sector, including laboratory managers and staff, environmental professionals, and legal counsels. In addition to EMMI, you will also receive 'Methods and Guidance for the Analysis of Water' on CD-ROM. EPA's Office of Water has taken the initiative to provide its methods and guidance documents on CD-ROM. The CD-ROM contains more than 330 drinking water and wastewater methods and guidance from over 50 EPA documents including: Methods for Chemical Analysis of Water and Wastes (MCAWW) Revised March 1983; Metals, Inorganic and Organic Substances in Environmnetal Samples; 40 CFR Part 136 Appendix A, B, C & D; Series 500, 600 and 1600 methods; Whole Effluent Toxicity Methods. A powerful search engine provides searching by method number, analyte name or keywords in the text. All text, tables, diagrams, flowcharts and figures are included. Electroically jump from the Table of Contents to documents of interest. Lookup chemicals on the Analyte List and electronically jump to recommeded methods.
#|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  Level III ecoregions of the continental United States.  Corvallis, Or. : National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1997. Includes two inset maps: Alaska and status of ecoregion revision and subdivision projects as of January 1997. National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory (U.S.).
#|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  Office of Water Policy and Technical Guidance on Interpretation and Implementation of Aquatic Life Metals Criteria. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Office of Water. Oct 93. 47p. The memorandum transmits Office of Water (OW) policy and guidance on the interpretation and implementation of aquatic life criteria for the management of metals. The issue covers a number of areas including the expression of aquatic life criteria; total maximum daily loads (TMDLs), permits, effluent monitoring, and compliance; and ambient monitoring. The memorandum covers each in turn. Attached to the policy memorandum are three guidance documents with additional technical details. They are: Guidance Document on Expression of Aquatic Life Criteria as Dissolved Criteria, Guidance Document on Dynamic Modeling and Translators, and Guidance Document on Monitoring.
#|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  Office of water policy and technical guidance on interpretation and implementation of aquatic life metals criteria.  Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC (USA). Office of Water.  1993. 47 pp. The memorandum transmits Office of Water (OW) policy and guidance on the interpretation and implementation of aquatic life criteria for the management of metals. The issue covers a number of areas including the expression of aquatic life criteria; total maximum daily loads (TMDLs), permits, effluent monitoring, and compliance; and ambient monitoring. The memorandum covers each in turn. Attached to the policy memorandum are three guidance documents with additional technical details. They are: Guidance Document on Expression of Aquatic Life Criteria as Dissolved Criteria, Guidance Document on Dynamic Modeling and Translators, and Guidance Document on Monitoring.
#|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  Proceedings of the National Conference (3rd): Water Quality Standards for the 21st Century. Las Vegas, Nevada, August 31-September 3, 1992. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, Office of Science and Technology.  Dec 92. 362p.  Applying EPA's Risk-Based Approach and Commitment to Sound Science to WQC/WQS Priority Setting; Life After Toxics: What Direction Now; Biological Measures: Can and Should They be Implemented; CSOs/Wet Weather: Are Today's WQC Relevant; Whole Effluent Toxicity; Re-examining Independent Applicability; Human Health Risk Management: Who Should We Protect; Sediment Management Policy Decisions; Advocates Forum; Ecological Risk Assessment; Human Health Risk Assessment: Reviewing EPA Guidelines; WQS for Ephemeral and Effluent-Dependent Streams; Additional Comments--Ecological Risk Assessment Comments.
#|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  PROCEEDINGS: WATER QUALITY CRITERIA AND STANDARDS FOR THE 21ST CENTURY, 4TH NATIONAL CONFERENCE, ARLINGTON, VA., SEPTEMBER 13-15, 1994.  National Center for Environmental Publications and Information: Cincinnati, OH.  Order Number: EPA820R95001.
#|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  Summary of data presented in the background document for effluent limitations guidelines and standards, ore mining and dressing point source Category.  Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC (USA). Office of Solid Waste.  REPORT NUMBER:  EPA530R93023.  55 pp.  1993.  NTIS: PB94113388XSP.  The document recompiles data from a study of wastewaters generated at ore and mining and dressing sites to support the development of national effluent guidelines to be included in NPDES permits issued for those facilities. The ore mining and dressing category includes extraction and beneficiation operations in the hard rock and mineral mining sectors. These sectors include iron, copper, lead, zinc, gold, silver, molybdenum, aluminum, tungsten, nickel, vanadium, mercury, uranium, antimony, titanium, and platinum. The summary contains the specific types of operations withineach sector, the organics analyzed, the metals analyzed, and a narrative description of the results of wastewater characterization for each process. The EPA's office of solid waste has recompiled the data contained in the effluent guidelines for possible use in its effort to develop a rational mining program.
#|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  WATER QUALITY CRITERIA DOCUMENTS FOR THE PROTECTION OF AQUATIC LIFE IN AMBIENT WATER, 1995 UPDATES.  National Center for Environmental Publications and Information: Cincinnati, OH.  Order Number: EPA820B96001.
#|U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  Whole Effluent Toxicity (WET) Control Policy: Policy for the Development of Effluent Limitations in National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System Permits to Control Whole Effluent Toxicity for the Protection of Aquatic Life.  Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Office of Water.  Report No.: EPA/833/B-94/002.  Jul 94. 80p.  This policy is intended (1) to promote uniform, nationwide compliance with statutory and regulatory requirements for the control of WET, and (2) to assist permit writers in implementing these requirements. The water quality permitting regulations, as well as the statutory provisions restated in this policy document, are fully binding on EPA Regions as well as States authorized to administer the NPDES program. This policy also provides guidance to permit writers on implementation of the statutory and regulatory requirements for the control of WET. This policy addresses some specific areas where questions have arisen regarding the implementation of statutory and regulatory requirements. It does not address all areas where the regulatory agency will exercise judgment in the implementation of statutory and regulatory requirements.
#|U.S. Geological Survey.  Ecoregions of North Dakota and South Dakota. Albers equal area proj., standard parallels 440N and 480N (W 1040--W 960/N 490-- N 430). Reston, Va. : Denver, Colo. : U.S. Geological Survey; For sale by the Survey, 1998.  Includes text, bibliographical references, 27 photographs, and location map of Level III ecoregions. Verso includes Summary table: Characteristics of ecoregions of North Dakota and South Dakota; and bibliographical references. This project was partially supported by funds from the USEPA - Office of Research and Development - Regional Applied Research Effort (RARE) program. [It] is associated with an interagency effort to develop a common framework of ecological regions.
#|U.S. Geological Survey.  Environmental setting and implications for water quality in the western Lake Michigan drainages.  Middleton, Wis. : Denver, CO : U.S. Geological Survey ; Branch of Information Services, 1997. Water-resources investigations report ; 97- 4196.
#|U.S. Geological Survey. Ecoregions of western Washington and Oregon.  Universal transverse Mercator proj. (W 1240--W 1200/N490--N 420). Reston, Va. : Denver, Colo. : U.S. Geological Survey.  1998.  Includes text, bibliographical references, 31 photographs, and location map of Level III ecoregions. Verso includes Summary table: Characteristics of ecoregions of western Washington and Oregon; and bibliographical references. This project was partially supported by funds from the USEPA - Office of Research and Development - Regional Applied Research EffortRE) program. [It] is associated with an interagency effort to develop a common framework of ecological regions.
#|Uluatum, S. S.  1993.  Calibration of a Steady-State Model of Water Quality Data.  Eur Water Pollut Control  v3, n3, p35(6). The Karasu River, which traverses the Central Anatolia region of Turkey, is heavily polluted because it receives large quantities of untreated industrial and domestic effluents. As the Karasu River provides water for irrigation, it is important that the quality of the river's water be protected. MODQUAL, a mathematical model for use in the monitoring of water quality, was calibrated with the use of data supplied by the Turkish General Directorate of State Water Works. The model is able to consider 13 water-quality parameters, including DO, BOD, algae, temperature, and nitrate-nitrogen. A regression analysis of MODQUAL results indicated that the model can be applied effectively to the monitoring of the Karasu River.
#|Van Buren, M A ; Watt, W E ; Marsalek, J.  Application of the log-normal and normal distributions to stormwater quality parameters. WATER RESEARCH vol. 31, no. 1, pp. 95-104, 1997.  Concentrations of water quality constituents in urban stormwater are often expressed in probabilistic terms - using statistics such as the mean and standard deviation and selected quantiles. In many studies, the log-normal distribution has been assumed to apply. In this 3-year study, the distributions of concentrations of 14 constituents in five sources of run-off were studied - parking-lot run-off discharging into an on-stream pond, baseflow and event flow in at small suburban creek feeding the same on-stream pond, and the pond outflow under both baseflow and event flow conditions. Two probability distributions, log-normal and normal, were fitted and the goodness-of-fit was assessed using probability plots and the Cramer-von Mises test. Of the two, the log-normal was the better distribution in most of the cases tested. It was more suitable for parking-lot run-off and creek baseflow, and somewhat less suitable for creek event flow and pond baseflow. With a few exceptions, the log-normal distribution did not apply for soluble constituents (total dissolved solids, chlorides, sulphate, COD) and or event outflow from the pond. In these cases the normal distribution was preferred. The composition of outflow from the pond was controlled by intense mixing of the incoming event run-off with the water stored in the pond. The assumption of an inappropriate probability distribution can result in substantial errors when estimating the mean concentration for censored data. This in turn can affect calculation of pollutant loads and extrapolation to estimate quantiles.
#|Van den Heever, D J ; Frey, B J.  Human health aspects of certain metals in tissue of the African sharptooth catfish, Clarias gariepinus, kept in treated sewage effluent and the Krugersdrift Dam: Chromium and mercury.  WATER S.A. vol. 22, no. 1, pp. 73-78, 1996.  Chromium and mercury concentrations in water, sediment and fish tissue were studied to assess the health risks concerned when such fish are consumed. Metal concentrations were studied in the liver, kidney and muscle tissues of the African sharptooth catfish, Clarias gariepinus, kept in treated sewage effluent from a biofilter treatment plant and in the Krugersdrift Dam, Bloemfontein, South Africa as well as in the water and sediment of the mentioned localities. Chromium concentrations were noticeably higher in the livers and kidneys than in the muscle tissue. In contrast, Hg concentrations were higher in the muscle tissue than in the livers and kidneys.  However, no set seasonal patterns could be established regarding the incidence of these elements in both habitats. The occurrence of Hg in the water of both habitats was very low and could therefore not be considered harmful or toxic to aquaculture. Chromium concentrations showed a fluctuating occurrence and exceeded international limit values during some months. The Hg and Cr concentrations found in the muscles of C. gariepinus, kept in treated domestic effluent can be a health hazard to consumers if fish is consumed in excess. Only gutted fish with the gills removed would be recommended for intake due to the Hg and Cr concentrations found in the kidney and liver tissue.
#|Van Eeden, P. H., & Schoonbee, H. J. (1996). Metal concentrations in liver, kidney, bone and blood of three species of birds from a metal-polluted wetland.  WATER S.A., vol. 22, no. 4, pp. 351-358. The concentrations of cadmium, copper, nickel and lead in the liver, kidney, bone and blood of the herbivorous Redknobbed Coot Fulica cristata, the piscivorous Reed Cormorant Phalacrocorax africanus and the omnivorous Sacred Ibis Threskiornis aethiopicus were determined. Specimens were collected from the Natalspruit wetland. This wetland area is polluted by these metals. The tissues were analysed for their metal contents and were processed according to standard analytical procedures. Cadmium levels were lowest in the four tissues analysed of all three species. Highest cadmium occurred in the kidneys of the ibis (3.4 mu g/g), the bone of the coot (5.1 mu g/g) and the blood of the cormorant (4.7 mu g/g). Copper (27 to 33 mu g/g) was highest in the liver whilst nickel (11 to 36 mu g/g) and lead (32 to 59 mu g/g) occurred in the highest concentrations in the bone of all three bird species. Reed Cormorants generally exhibited the highest bone lead concentrations (59.0 mu g/g). A high degree of variability in tissue metal concentrations was found among all three species. Except for liver, significant differences (p<0.05) were recorded for the four metals in all the other tissues of the three species. The research showed that these three bird species were able to accumulate these metals at abnormal concentrations with no apparent chronic or negative effect on their survival. In this context these birds therefore comply with one of the main criteria required for their potential as indicator organisms of metal pollution in the aquatic environment.
#|Van Orden, George N.; Uchrin, Christopher G.  The Study of Dissolved Oxygen Dynamics in the Whippany River, New Jersey Using the QUALE2E Model.  Ecol Model  v70, n1-2, p1(17) Nov 93.  Waste discharges to the Whippany River in New Jersey have greatly exceeded the ecosystem's assimilatory capacity. Based on data collected in 1985, a steady-state DO model of the lower reaches of the river was constructed and calibrated. The model was constructed using the EPA Enhanced Stream Quality Model QUALE2E. In the model, the stream is conceptualized as a one-dimensional string of completely mixed segments that are linked sequentially by the mechanisms of advective transport and dispersion. Model development and validation are detailed. Model results indicated that that the major components of DO uptake were carbonaceous and reduced nitrogenous compounds from the Morristown Sewerage-Treatment Plant effluents. The model was used to predict the improvements needed in effluent quality to improve the river's DO.
#|Varadaraj,-G.; Jayasuria,-S.; Subramanian,-M.A.  Toxic effect of tannery effluent on the biochemical constituents in different tissues of Pila globosa. ENVIRON.-ECOL. 1994  vol. 12, no. 2, pp. 303-307.  Static bioassays reveal that the LC 50/96-hour of tannery effluent for freshwater snail Pila globosa was 70% of the effluent. The snails were reared in different sublethal concentrations of the effluent for 15 days. Various biochemical constituents (total free amino acids, total proteins, total free sugars, glycogen and lipids) in the liver, gills, mantle and foot of the effluent--treated snails were estimated. In all the tissues, the metabolites were found to decrease depending on the dose of the effluent and duration of the exposure period. The reduction of the biochemical constituents in the tissues of the snails could be attributed to the excess utilization of the same to provide extra energy to cope with the stress caused by the tannery effluent.
#|Varadaraj,-G.; Muralidharan,-S.; Subramanian,-M.A.  Impact of tannery effluent on protein utilization in Oreochromis mossambicus (Peters). ENVIRON.-ECOL. 1997  vol. 15, no. 2, pp. 307-310.  Fresh water fish Oreochromis mossambicus were reared in different sublethal concentrations of tannery effluent for 30 days. Various protein utilization parameters and protein conversion efficiencies in gills, intestine, liver and muscle of the fish exposed to effluent were estimated. The protein consumption, apparent digestibility and conversion efficiency were found to decrease significantly in fish at the tannery effluent stress. Similarly, significant reduction of protein conversion efficiency was also noticed in the tissues of the fannery effluent-exposed fish showing that the toxicity of the effluent was at tissue level causing retarded growth.
#|Varma, M.C.  Heavy metals in aquatic environment.  Proceedings of the third Asia-Pacific Food Analysis Network Conference on Food Analysis.  Manila Philippines,  22-25 May 1995.  Manila (Philippines), 1995, p. 20.  River Subernarekha is subjected to heavy metal pollution at Ghatsila (Bihar, India, 22 deg 34" N Lat. 86 deg 26' E Longtd) by the effluent discharge of a giant metal industry.  Heavy metals in the effluents particularly Cu (3, 148 ug/L), Pb (1,073 ug/L) and Zn (5, 140 ug/L) are above the ISI standards jeopardizing river water quality and biota. The average concentration of metals in river water, algal blooms and fish (Aspidaparia jaya) were recorded maximum at the effluent mixing zone.  River water contained Cu (28-705 ug/L) Zn (122-650 ug/L) and Pb (135-489 ug/L) with highest value at effluent mixing zone. Values of Cu (1,500 mg/kg), Zn (1,445 mg/kg) and Pb (70 mg/kg) in algal blooms and similarly in fish under observation (Cu-36 mg/kg, Zn - 302 mg/kg and Pb-44 mg/kg) at Ghatsila are indicative of high metallic pollution in riverine ecosystems.  This might have caused the apparent reduction in the number of fish fauna.
#|Varma, M.C. Nematological examination.  Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater. (Ed. 19):  p.71-89, 1995, Chapter 1550.  Editors: Franson, M. A. H. American Public Health Association, Washington. The chapter is divided into 3 parts: an introduction covering the occurrence and impact of nematodes and their characterization; collection and processing techniques for nematodes and an illustrated key to freshwater nematodes. The key, that uses original drawings, photocopies of published drawings or photocopies on which figures were redrawn, can be widely used.
#|Vaultonburg, D.L.; Pederson, C.L.  Spatial and temporal variation of diatom community structure in twoeast-central Illinois streams.  TRANS.  ILL.  STATE  ACAD. SCI  VOL. 87, NO. 1-2, pp. 9-27, 1994.  Much attention has been given to macroinvertebrate and fish communities of the Embarras River Basin. In contrast, algal communities have been ignored, even though algae are potentially more sensitive as monitors of environmental change.  Recent industrialization in the watershed could negatively impact water quality of the Embarras River and Brushy Fork - streams already subject to agricultural runoff, wastewater plant effluent, and landfill leachate.  Our purpose was to describe attached diatom communities in order to establish a baseline for future comparisons.  Artificial substrates were deployed in the Embarras River and in Brushy Fork for successive two-week intervals from 30 May 1990 through 22 September 1990.  While seventy species of diatoms were identified, seventy to ninety-nine percent of all communities were comprised of only eleven species.  These dominant species are recommended as potential biological monitors, while community level parameters such as species richness, diversity, and evenness are believed to be insensitive to environmental perturbation.
#|Vega,-M.M.; Fernandez,-C.; Blazquez,-T.; Tarazona,-J.V.; Castano,-A.  Biological and chemical tools in the toxicological risk assessment of Jarama River, Madrid, Spain. ENVIRON.-POLLUT. 1996  vol. 93, no. 2, pp. 135-139.  Four river water samples (R) and three sewage samples (S) were collected at different points in the Jarama River, Spain. Organic concentrates were tested on the RTG-2 in vitro cytotoxicity test and analyzed by HPLC and GC/MS. The cytotoxicity assessment demonstrated a progressive increase in the toxicity of the river water when moving downstream. A wide range, from slightly harmful to highly toxic, was observed for sewage samples. The most toxic samples produced decreases of 95% to 100% in the ATP content, cell viability and cell detachment (a parameter to estimate mortality). The most toxic organic concentrates (the sewage from an urban + industrial effluent collected in Paracuellos, Madrid, Spain, and the river 100 m downstream from the discharge of this effluent) were fractioned by an HPLC system. Each chromatographic peak was collected as a fraction of the whole concentrate. The cytotoxicity of each fraction was also assessed on RTG-2 cells. A toxic peak with a retention time of 38.3 min was detected in both samples; this time belongs to the PAHs retention time interval under our chromatographic conditions. Analytical procedures identified fluorene (0.62 mu g/l) and benz(a)anthracene (0.44 mu g/l) in the sewage and anthracene (0.40 mu g/l) and benz(a)anthracene (0.14 mu g/l) in the river water. However, the observed cytotoxicity could not be explained by the PAH concentrations. Five additional toxic peaks were observed in each sample. Results suggest that the combination of HPLC with cost-effective toxicity tests produces a useful tool to define environmental management decisions when the chemical analysis cannot identify the substances responsible for the environmental risk.
#|Veil, J.A.  Analysis of U.S. produced water controls -- Are they cost-effective.  Department of Energy, Washington, DC. Contract Number: ANL-EA-CP-85967, CONF-9509296-1, Contract W-31109-ENG-38.  NTIS/DE96004775, 20p. International petroleum environmental conference (2nd), New Orleans, LA, 25-27 Sep 1995. TD3: The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) establishes controls on produced water discharges into US waters through effluent limitations guidelines (ELGs), and general and individual discharge permits. This paper summarizes several studies that have reviewed in detail EPA's data, assumptions, and analytical methods for earlier proposed regulations and general permits. These include the offshore oil and gas ELGs, EPA's Region 6 general permit for coastal waters, and most recently, the proposed ELGs for the coastal oil and gas industry.  By substituting different data, using revised assumptions, and reanalyzing data that are equally or more valid, the studies reach alternate conclusions on the cost-effectiveness of current produced water controls.
#|Veil, J.A. Increased emphasis on toxics control in oil and gas industry NPDES permits.  Department of Energy, Washington, DC. Contract Number: ANL-EA-CP-89255, CONF-9609237-3, Contract W-31109-ENG-38.  NTIS/DE96013962, 12p. International petroleum environmental conference (3rd), Albuquerque, NM, 24-27 Sep 1996.  The 1987 amendments to the Clean Water Act emphasized stricter control of toxics in wastewater discharges.  General permits proposed in the past year by Region VI for discharges into the territorial seas of Louisiana and by Region X for coastal and offshore discharges in Alaska are much stricter than previous permits.  The Region VI permit requires numerical produced water limits on arsenic, lead, benzene, total phenols, radium, and whole effluent toxicity. The Region X permit requires numerical produced water limits on copper, arsenic, zinc, total aromatic hydrocarbons, total aqueous hydrocarbons, and whole effluent toxicity. The additional requirements increase the cost of complying with the permit, present more opportunities for exceeding one of the permit limits, and serve as a precedent for future permits.
#|Wade A; Maher B; Lawrence I; Davis N; Zoppou C; Bell C.  Estimating the allowable ammonia concentrations in wastewater treatment plant discharge to ensure protection of aquatic biota. ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGY, 1998, V19, N7 (JUL), P749-754.  Ammonia, a common constituent of wastewaters, is toxic to a wide range of aquatic organisms. Fish are the most sensitive species and cold-water, oxygen-sensitive, fish such as trout are the most vulnerable. The US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) has developed models of fish-tolerance to ammonia levels. These criteria have been adopted in Australian Water Quality Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Waters [1]. Given that the toxicity of ammonia is dependent on the prevailing temperature and pH, allowable concentrations of ammonia in aquatic systems such as lakes and estuaries must take these factors into account. We describe a simple procedure for estimating the allowable ammonia concentrations in discharges from wastewater treatment plants to ensure protection of aquatic biota. The procedure incorporates the USEPA fish-tolerance models and considers the dependency of ammonia on ambient temperature and pH levels and the volume of discharge and recieving waters.
#|Wade, R. (1994). Calcasieu River Sediment Removal Study: initial rept.  Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS. Environmental Lab.  97p. The periodic maintenance of 14 miles of the Calcasieu River by sediment removal is required to restore a navigable waterway. One alternative being considered for the Calcasieu River is hydraulic dredging, with temporary or permanent dredged material disposal in an upland confined disposal facility (CDF). Monitoring data collected during the 1988-1989 maintenance event indicated that the CDFs may not have been properly managed for maximum efficiency in settling, retention of suspended solids, and possible contaminants. Laboratory column settling tests and modified elutriate tests were performed on three Calcasieu River sediments. The settling behaviors were observed to be typical of other sediments if hydraulically dredged and placed in a CDF. The compression tests data were used to develop the initial storage requirements. The flocculent tests data indicated that the suspended solids will settle by gravity. Results of the modified elutriate tests, which predict both dissolved concentrations of contaminants and particle-associated contaminant under quiescent settling conditions, were below the Federal Water Quality Criteria.
#|Wagner, A.; Geiger, W.F.; Bally, D.; Asano, T; Bhamidimarri, R.; Chin, K.K.; Grabow, W.O.K.; Hall, E.R.; Ohgaki, S.; Orhon, D.; Milburn, A.; Purdon, C.D.; Nagle, P.T.  New criteria for stormwater discharges into urban streams. Biennial Conference of the International Association on Water Quality (Singapore)  23-28 Jun 1996.  WATER QUALITY INTERNATIONAL '96. PART 2: WET WEATHER POLLUTION CONTROL; SEWERAGE DESIGN OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE; INSTRUMENTATION, CONTROL AND AUTOMATION; DESIGN, OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE OF LARGE WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANTS; DESIGN, OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE OF SMALL WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANTS; SLUDGE MANAGEMENT; CROSS-MEDIA POLLUTION AND VOLATILE ORGANIC EMISSIONS VOL. 34, NO. 3-4, pp. 41-48, 1996.  WATER SCI. TECHNOL. The German state of the art for designing stormwater discharges and combined sewer retention tanks is emission oriented. This approach does not adequately reflect the needs of urban brooks. Literature on the topic shows the need for further research investigations. Firstly, a detailed study is used to define the hydraulic impact of discharges and overflows on an urban stream. This paper attempts to relate the hydraulic impact in the form of shear stress with substrate movement. The correlation between the extent of stormwater impacts and ecomorphological properties is considered to be the significant parameter for evaluation of runoff. Finally a new approach for assessing stormwater discharges into urban brooks is presented. This approach is divided into hydraulic and pollutant components and takes the ecomorphological properties into consideration.
#|Wahl, Kenneth L., Wilbert O. Thomas, Jr., and Robert M. Hirsch.  Stream-Gaging Program of the U.S. Geological Survey.  U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY CIRCULAR 1123. Reston, Virginia, 1995.
#|WANG W; FREEMARK K.  The use of plants for environmental monitoring and assessment. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY; 30 (3). 1995. 289-301.This paper presents a critical review on phytotoxicity tests for environmental monitoring and assessment. Vascular macrophytes used in the laboratory testing are emphasized; algae are mentioned only for comparison. Several issues are discussed, including the rationale for and misconceptions about phytotoxicity tests, relation to regulation, status of phytotoxicity test protocols, advantages and disadvantages of phytotoxicity tests, and possible research directions. Aquatic and terrestrial macrophytes, along with algae, are essential components of ecosystems. Macrophytes are becoming more important for the monitoring and assessment of herbicides, effluents, and industrial chemicals. In the United States, Canada, and international organizations, phytotoxicity tests ran be required for environmental monitoring and assessment in statutes such as Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act; Toxic Substances Control Act; Water Quality Act; Canadian Pest Control Products Act; and Canadian Environmental Protection Act. Possible research directions for phytotoxicity tests are discussed relative to the role in regulations of industrial chemicals, effluents, hazardous waste sites, and pesticides.
#|Wang Wuncheng.  Rice seed toxicity tests for organic and inorganic substances.  Environmental Monitoring and Assessment  29 (2):p101-107 1994.  Plant seed toxicity tests can be used to evaluate hazardous wastesites and to assess toxicity of complex effluents and industrial chemicals. Conventional plant seed toxicity tests are performed using culture dishes containing filter paper. Some reports indicate that filter papers might interfere with the toxicity of inorganic substances. In this study, a plastic seed tray was used. Rice was used as the test species. A comparison of results in the literature and this study revealed that variation of test species, methods, exposure duration, and other factors may affect the test results. The results of this study showed that the order of decreasing toxicity of metal ions was Cu gt Ag gt Ni gt Cd gt Cr(VI) gt Pb gt Zn gt Mn gt NaF for rice. The test results were similar to those reported in the literature for lettuce Ag gt Ni gt Cd,Cu gt Cr(VI) gt Zn gt Mn, millet Cu,Ni gt Cd gt Cr(VI) gt Zn gt Mn, and ryegrass Cu gt Ni gt Mn mchgt Pb gt Cd gt Zn gt Al gt Hg gt Cr gt Fe. The order of decreasing toxicity of organic herbicides was paraquat, 2,4-D mchgt glyphosate gt bromacil.
#|Ward, A.  Polishing metals regulation.  INDUSTRIAL WASTEWATER vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 25-28, 1996.  Water quality criteria for heavy metals, as recommended by EPA, have been misapplied in many wastewater discharge permits, but through the development of new analytical techniques and ongoing discussions among EPA, state agencies, academia, the regulated community and other interested groups, metals regulation continues to evolve toward a more scientifically accurate approach.
#|Wardzinski, Karen M., Freedman, Levy, Kroll & Simonds.  EPA Publishes Multisector General Permit for Stormwater Discharges Associated with Industrial Activities.  Environ Regul Permitting  v5, n3, p79(6), Spring 962qr.  The EPA's multisector general NPDES permit for industrial stormwater discharge allows permitters to seek coverage up until March 29, 1996. The permit is applicable only in the states where EPA maintains the permitting authority (AK, AZ, DC, FL, ID, LA, ME, MA, NH, NM, OK, PR, TX, and multiple US territories). The general permit does not mandate all of the monitoring for industrial activities that had been proposed. Pollution control plans are required of all discharging facilities under the permit. The permit also addresses Phase I stormwater discharges, technology-based requirements, pollution prevention plans, monitoring requirements, numeric limitations, best management practices, intent to be covered, and reporting requirements.
#|Warren, L., Zimmerman, A. 1993.  Trace metal suspended particulate matter associations in a fluvial system: physical and chemical interactions.  In S. Rao, ed., Particulate Matter and Aquatic Contaminants. Lewis, Boca Raton, FL., pp. 127-156.
#|Warrington, P. D. (1996). Ambient water quality criteria for silver. British Columbia. Water Quality Branch, Victoria. This document sets out ambient water quality criteria for silver with the goal of protecting freshwater and marine aquatic life in British Columbia. Criteria were not set for human, livestock, or wildlife drinking water, recreational waters, irrigation water, or industrial water uses, since either suitable data documenting the effects of silver for these uses were lacking or the criteria would have been redundant. The document reviews the man-made and natural occurrence of silver in the environment, silver speciation and reactions (including water chemistry and bioaccumulation), silver exposure routes and effects in animal and aquatic life, and silver accumulation and effects in plants. The rationales for selecting the water quality criteria are also presented.
#|WARRY ND, HANAU M.  THE USE OF TERRESTRIAL ECOREGIONS AS A REGIONAL-SCALE SCREEN FOR SELECTING REPRESENTATIVE REFERENCE SITES FOR WATER-QUALITY MONITORING.  ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 17: (2) 267-276 MAR-APR 1993.  A process has been developed to select watersheds that are representative of terrestrial ecoregions and that are relatively undisturbed by human activity. Using an existing land classification system at two hierarchical levels of resolution, representative subsets (ecodistricts) of large-scale ecoregions were selected, on the basis of their Physiographic, biological, and climatological attributes, to represent the ecoregions. This was achieved using a frequency distribution analysis of existing attribute data and choosing the ecodistrict most closely resembling the most common set of conditions for that ecoregion. Within each ecodistrict, river basins were selected through a best-judgement evaluation of land use, coupled with an assessment of the size and location of each river basin, in order to meet the condition of minimal human impact. Preliminary assessment of water quality data collected from six watersheds selected in this way suggests that the process is effective in targeting regional scale river basins exhibiting the desired characteristics.
#|Wassenaar, L I ; Culp, J M. The use of stable isotopic analyses to identify pulp mill effluent signatures in riverine food webs.  ENVIRONMENTAL FATE AND EFFECTS OF PULP AND PAPER MILL EFFLUENTS.  Servos, M R ; Munkittrick, K R ; Carey, J H ; van der Kraak, G J  (eds ) pp. 413-423, 1996.  International Conference on Environmental Fate and Effects of Bleached Pulp Mill Effluents.  Vancouver, British Columbia (Canada), 1994 Nov 6-10.  ST. LUCIE PRESS: DELRAY BEACH, FL.  Because stable isotopes of carbon and sulfur in pulp mill effluent (PME) can be incorporated through food sources into biological tissues, we hypothesized that stable isotopes may be used to quantify exposure of riverine biota to PME. We tested this hypothesis by assessing the C, N and S isotopic compositions of the waters and food web of the Thompson River and effluent samples from the Weyerhaeuser pulp mill in Kamloops, BC. Although the delta super(34)S isotopic composition of the PME was distinct, it could not be used reliably to trace the fate of PME due to the mixing pattern of waters of the North and South Thompson River. In contrast, the food web had previously been thought to be supported by C fixed by riverine algae. However, an isotopic mass balance model suggested two C sources support this food web: (1) the algal biofilm which utilizes dissolved inorganic C from the river and (2) a source with an delta super(13)C isotopic signature similar to terrestrial plants. Similarly, delta super(15)N isotopic composition of the food web indicated a substantial input from terrestrial plants. This striking and unexpected input of terrestrial C and N is hypothesized to be from PME, suggesting that C and N loadings from PME may play an important role in supporting downstream food webs.
#|Water pollution: Differences among the states in issuing permits limiting the discharge of pollutants.  General Accounting Off., Washington, DC (USA).  REPORT NUMBER:  GAO/RCED-96-42.  34 pp., 1996.  The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has issued national guidance and regulations to help the stats establish standards to protect water quality and issue permits to facilities to limit the discharge of pollutants. Although the Clean Water Act requires all states to adopt water quality standards, EPA authorizes qualified states to issue permits. Currently, 40 states have obtained such authority in the remaining 10 states, EPA regional offices issue the permits. In issuing the permits, the states and EPA may impose limits on the discharges of specific pollutants, require the facilities to monitor the levels of pollutants they discharge, or determine that no controls are warranted. This report (1) determines whether differences exist in whether and how the states and EPA control pollutants in the discharge permits they issue, (2) identifies the causes of any differences, and (3) provides information on EPA's oversight of the states' water quality standards and policies.
#|Water-Quality Assessment of South-Central Texas - Occurrence and Distribution of Volatile Organic Compounds in Surface Water and Ground Water, 1983-94, and Implications for Future Monitoring. A Contribution of the National Water-Quality Assessment Program. Geological Survey, Austin, TX. Water Resources Div.  NTIS Order Number: PB97-187835INZ. 28p., 1997.
#|Water-Quality Monitoring in the United States - 1993, Report of the Intergovernmental Task Force on Monitoring Water Quality. Intergovernmental Task Force on Monitoring Water Quality, Washington, DC. Water Information Coordination Program. NTIS Order Number: PB95-190377INZ. 65p., Jan 94 .
#|Watson,-G.F.; Davies,-M.; Tyler,-M.J.  Observations on temporary waters in northwestern Australia. HYDROBIOLOGIA 1995  vol. 299, no. 1, pp. 53-73.  The results of preliminary investigations of ephemeral waters of the wet-dry tropics are reported. These poorly known but extensive habitats cover much of the seasonally inundated land of northern Australia. Brief descriptions of the physicochemical characteristics of four contrasting sites are given along with a listing of the non-benthic fauna that utilize them. Ninety-six invertebrate taxa and eighteen species of vertebrates were recorded. Anuran amphibians were particularly abundant in these systems and their patterns of utilization of these temporary waters is described. Because of their seasonal abundance, tadpoles and young frogs are likely to be important prey for a suite of both invertebrate and vertebrate predators.
#|Wayne, D M ; Warwick, J J ; Lechler, P J ; Gill, G A ; Lyons, W B.  Mercury contamination in the Carson River, Nevada: A preliminary study of the impact of mining wastes.  WATER, AIR, AND SOIL POLLUTION vol. 92, no. 3-4, pp. 391-408, 1996.  From 1860 to 1890, approximately 7 100 metric tons of metallic mercury (Hg) were released into the Carson River-Lahontan Reservoir watershed as a by-product of Comstock Lode silver (Ag) and gold (Au) ore refining. Present-day Hg contamination is most severe in mine tailings, where total Hg concentrations can exceed several hundred mu g/g. Hg-laden tailings were also dumped directly into the Carson River, and were subsequently transported downstream into the Lahontan Reservoir and the Stillwater Wildlife Management Area. The Hg, Ag and Au contents of sediments from the Carson River and the Lahontan Reservoir are well above local background levels, and both Ag and Au contents are positively correlated to Hg. Thus, tailings-derived Hg has been redistributed throughout the entire Carson-Lahontan watershed over the last century. Total Hg concentrations in water samples from the Carson River at seven localities show that: 1) elevated (e.g., >20 ng/L) Hg levels in Carson River waters first appear downstream from accumulations of mill tailings, 2) total Hg concentrations in unfiltered and filtered water from the Carson River increase downstream (i.e. away from the tailings piles), and 3) Hg concentrations in both the Carson River (downstream from the tailings piles) and the Lahontan Reservoir are among the highest known worldwide (100 to 1000 ng/L).  Filtered water samples from the Carson-Lahontan system also have high Hg contents (up to 113 ng/L), and suggest that the >0.4 mu m particle fraction constitutes over 60% of the total water-borne Hg.
#|Webb, N A ; Morgan, I J ; Wood, C M.  Physiological analysis of the stress response associated with acute silver exposure in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss).  Andren, A W ; Bober, T W  (eds ).  REPORT NUMBER:  WISCU-W-96-001.  Pp. 161-164, 1996.  Int. Conf. Transport, Fate and Effects of Silver in the Environment.  Madison, WI (USA), 1996 Aug 25-28.  Exposure to AgNO sub(3) causes severe ionoregulatory disturbances that appear to put fish under a great deal of stress. Wood et al. (1996) found that plasma Na super(+) and Cl super(-) levels dropped dramatically during a six day exposure of rainbow trout to 10 mu g/L Ag (as AgNO sub(3)) in moderately hard freshwater. They also saw the plasma become acidic with a drop of Paco sub(2) and HCO sub(3) super(-) levels. A comparable study by Hogstrand, Ferguson and Wood (unpubl. results) exposed starry flounder to 250 mu g/l Ag (as AgNO sub(3)) in seawater plasma ammonia levels increased dramatically after the start of exposure, recovered somewhat by the end, but remained significantly higher than control values. These results suggest that silver affects both ion exchange and ammonia excretion at the gills of fish. The current study replicated the exposure of Wood et al. (1996) in order to measure plasma ammonia levels and excretion rates, as well as to determine the cause of decreased plasma ions. In adult rainbow trout exposed to 10 mu g/l Ag (as AgNO sub(3)) in moderately hard freshwater, blood pH fell significantly by the 6th day with Paco sub(2) values dropping to 50% of those found in control fish. Plasma glucose levels of exposed fish increased, and after 6 days were 4x control values. Plasma cortisol levels also quadrupled by the 6th day. Na super(+) and Cl super(-) flux rates at the gills were immediately affected after introduction of Ag. Unidirectional influx rates for both ions dropped by 50% and by 8 hours were almost completely blocked. Unidirectional efflux rates were unaffected and thus a net loss of these ions occurred throughout the exposure.
#|Webb, N A ; Wood, C M.  Physiological analysis of the stress response associated with acute silver nitrate exposure in freshwater rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss).  ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY vol. 17, no. 4, pp. 579-588, 1998.  Rainbow trout were exposed to AgNO sub(3) (9.2 mu g/L total Ag, of which 35% was as the free ion, Ag super(+)) for a 6-d period in dechlorinated Hamilton tapwater. Our findings suggest that the primary toxic mechanism of Ag is an interruption of ionoregulation at the gills, stopping active Na super(+) and Cl super(-) uptake without increasing passive efflux, thereby causing net ion loss. There is no recovery of influxes over 6 d, whereas effluxes are gradually reduced below control levels, and ion balance remains negative. The resulting fall in plasma [Na super(+)] and [Cl super(-)] leads to a decrease in plasma volume and hemoconcentration, but the red blood cells do not swell. A substantial metabolic acidosis with partial respiratory compensation occurs in the blood, due to a net uptake of acidic equivalents from the environmental water. This uptake greatly exceeds the measured acid load in the extracellular fluid, suggesting that acidosis also occurs in the intracellular compartment, which in turn explains the continual loss of K super(+) to the water in the absence of any change in plasma [K super(+)]. Plasma ammonia, glucose, and cortisol rise. As there is no reduction but rather a progressive rise in ammonia excretion, the increase in plasma ammonia is due to elevated metabolic production rather than inhibited excretion. The cause is probably the stress-induced mobilization of cortisol. This increased plasma ammonia, in conjunction with hyperventilation, helps to counteract metabolic acidosis. However, because the fish is unable to counteract the loss of plasma ions, death eventually results from a severe ionoregulatory disturbance.
#|Weber,-C.I. Methods for measuring the acute toxicity of effluents and receiving waters to freshwater and marine organisms. Fourth edition. Environmental Monitoring Systems Lab., Cincinnati, OH (USA). 1993. 310 pp. Rept No: EPA600490027F.  The manual describes methods for measuring the acute toxicity of effluents to freshwater, estuarine, and marine macroinvertebrates and fish. The methods include single and multiple concentration static non-renewal, static-renewal, and flow-through toxicity tests for effluents and receiving waters. Also included are guidelines on laboratory safety; quality assurance; facilities and equipment; test species selection and handling; dilution water; effluent and receiving water sample collection, preservation, shipping, and holding; test conditions; toxicity test data analysis; report preparation; organism culturing; and dilutor and mobile laboratory construction.
#|WELSH PG, PARROTT JL, DIXON DG, HODSON PV, SPRY DJ, & MIERLE G. (1996). ESTIMATING ACUTE COPPER TOXICITY TO LARVAL FATHEAD MINNOW (PIMEPHALES-PROMELAS) IN SOFT-WATER FROM MEASUREMENTS OF DISSOLVED ORGANIC-CARBON, CALCIUM, AND PH.  CANADIAN JOURNAL OF FISHERIES AND AQUATIC SCIENCES, V53, N6, P1263-1271. We tested an empirical model that predicts copper (Cu) toxicity to larval fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas) from surface water pH and dissolved organic carbon (DOC) concentrations with an independent data set of 18 softwater lakes. These lakes ranged widely in concentrations of DOC (1.7-14.8 mg L(-1)), pH (5.5-6.9), and calcium (Ca) (1.9-4.6 mg L(-1)), all factors known to modify metal toxicity. Acute median lethal concentrations (96-h LC(50)s) for total Cu were 5.3-169.5 mu g . L(-1) in the 18 lakes. Although measured Cu toxicity was correlated with predicted toxicity (r(2) = 0.78), the model overestimated the actual Cu toxicity; however, this could be corrected by including Ca in a modified model: log 96-h Cu LC(50) = 0.981 + 0.192 pH + 0.136 (pH x log DOC) + 0.166 Ca (r(2) = 0.84). Similar parameters were observed when the analysis was restricted to the 18 study lakes (r(2) = 0.85). Toxicity was also expressed as log 96-h Cu LC(50) = 0.033 + 0.025 pH + 0.015(pH x log colour) + 0.078 hardness (r(2) = 0.83) because colour and hardness are easily measured surrogates for DOC and Ca concentrations. This research demonstrates that acute lethality of Cu to larval fathead minnows varies in a predictable way in soft water, on the basis of DOG, pH, and Ca concentrations.
#|Welsh, P. G., Skidmore, J. F., Spry, D. J., Dixon, D. G., Hodson, P. V., Hutchinson, N. J., & Hickie, B. E.  1993.  Effect of pH and Organic Carbon on the Toxicity of Copper to Larval.  Can J Fish Aquat Sci v50, n7, p1356(7). The acute toxicity of copper to larval fathead minnow was researched as a function of pH and dissolved organic carbon (DOC) content in natural soft water from two Precambrian Shield lakes in Ontario Province, Canada. Both DOC removal and acidification increased Cu toxicity. The LC50 ranged from a low of 2 (gr)mg/l at pH 5.6 and DOC of 0.2 mg/l to a high of 182 (gr)mg/l at pH 6.9 and DOC of 15.6 mg/l. Current water quality criteria for Cu, and probably for other metals, may not be sufficiently protective of aquatic biota in soft, moderately acidic water containing low DOC levels.
#|Wen LS, Santschi PH, Gill GA, Paternostro CL, Lehman RD.  Colloidal and particulate silver in river and estuarine waters of Texas.  ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 31: (3) 723-731 MAR 1997.  Concentration and phase speciation of Ag in selected Texas rivers and in the Trinity River estuary were measured in order to establish the major factors that control its fate in the aquatic environment from source to sink. Concentrations of Ag in the filter-passing fractions in Texas rivers ranged from <0.01 to 62 ng/L. In the Trinity River estuary (Galveston Bay), they ranged from 0.4 to 6.4 ng/L and showed a non-conservative estuarine mixing behavior. An internal source of filter-passing (less than or equal to 0.45 mu m) and colloidal (1 kDa-0.45 mu m) Ag was observed in the upper Trinity Bay. Silver, associated with colloidal macromoecular organic matter, which was isolated using cross-flow ultrafiltration techniques, amounted to 15-70% of the filtered (less than or equal to 0.45 mu m) Ag concentration, decreasing with increasing salinity. Such a trend was similar to that of dissolved and colloidal organic carbon. Estuarine distributions of colloidal Ag were also broadly similar to those of suspended particulate matter. The ratio of colloidal Ag to filter-passing Ag was similar to the ratio of colloidal organic carbon to total dissolved organic carbon, suggesting not only that Ag is complexed by organic macromolecules but also that functional groups with high affinity for Ag were evenly distributed over the different molecular weight fractions. Particulate Ag was found associated mainly with a iron-manganese oxyhydroxide/sulfide phase. The close relation between Ag and Fe in colloidal and particulate phases suggests common surface complexes, probably sulfhydryl groups. In river waters of Texas, 33-89% of the operationally defined dissolved (less than or equal to 0.45 mu m) Ag fraction was present in a large colloidal form (0.1-0.45 mu m). The high affinity of Ag for suspended particulates in river and estuarine water was reflected by a high mean particle/water partition coefficient of log K-d = 5.0 +/- 0.6 (based on filtration through a 0.45-mu m filter) and 5.5 +/- 0.5 (based on filtration through a 0.1 mu m filter). Particle/water partition coefficients for the surface-adsorbed phase showed particle concentration effects, which, however, disappeared (log K-p1 = 5.0 +/- 0.3) when the dissolved Ag data were corrected for the presence of a colloidal fraction.
#|Wen, L S ; Santschi, P H ; Gill, G A ; Paternostro, C L ; Lehman, R D.  Silver in river and estuarine waters of Texas: Evidence for complexation to macromolecular organic matter.  Andren, A W ; Bober, T W  (eds ).  REPORT NUMBER:  WISCU-W-96-001.  pp. 9-14, 1996.  Int. Conf. Transport, Fate and Effects of Silver in the Environment.  Madison, WI (USA), 1996 Aug 25-28.  oncentration and phase speciation of Ag in selected Texas rivers and in the Trinity River estuary were measured in order to establish the major factors which control its fate in the aquatic environment from source to sink. Concentrations of Ag in the filter-passing fractions in Texas rivers ranged from <0.01 to 62 ng/L.  In the Trinity River estuary (Galveston Bay), they ranged from 0.4 to 6.4 ng/L and showed a non-conservative estuarine mixing behavior. An example is shown in Figure 1. An internal source of both filter-passing ( less than or equal to 0.45 mu m) and colloidal (1kDa similar to 0.45 mu m) Ag was observed in the upper Trinity Bay. Silver, associated with colloidal macromolecular organic matter, which was isolated using cross-flow ultrafiltration techniques, amounted to 15-70% of the filtered ( less than or equal to 0.45 mu m) Ag concentration, decreasing with increasing salinity. Such a trend was similar to that of dissolved and colloidal organic carbon. Estuarine distributions of colloidal Ag were also broadly similar to those of suspended particulate matter. The ratio of colloidal Ag to filter-passing Ag was similar to the ratio of colloidal organic carbon to total dissolved organic carbon (Figure 2), suggesting not only that Ag is complexed by organic macromolecules, likely to sulfhydryl groups, but also that these functional groups were evenly distributed over the different molecular weight fractions. Particulate Ag was found associated mainly with a Fe-Mn oxyhydroxide/sulfide phase. The close relation between Ag and Fe in colloidal and particulate phases (Figures 3 and 4) suggests common surface complexes, probably again sulfhydryl groups.
#|West, M.-S.; Debenham,-J.-M.-P.; Collett,-P.-J.  Environmental and Legislative Significance of Ephemeral Concentration Peaks in Effluent Mixing Zones. IN: Modelling, Measuring and Prediction. Water Pollution II. Computational Mechanics, Boston, MA. 1993. p 543-550.  Recent water quality surveys and numerical modelling studies for South West Water Services Ltd., UK, have highlighted the existence of short-lived, high concentrations of components of wastewater in receiving waters adjacent to effluent discharges. The areas affected are relatively localized and may be considered mixing zones in which Environmental Water Quality Standards may be exceeded for limited periods of time. A synthesis was made of field observations of such 'ephemeral peaks', their representation in numerical models and their significance with reference to the environment and to European legislation. In wastewater effluent components for salmonid estuaries from the South West area of Britain, peaks have been shown to be spatially and temporally limited. Their magnitude appears dependent on variables such as tidal height, flow velocity and the magnitude and timing of discharges. The idea of a 'sampling' percentile exceedance water quality standard was questioned (with respect to water quality legislation) because of the periodic nature of the concentration peaks. This was concluded to introduce variability in receiving water concentrations which the statistical variability, on which the percentile exceedance is based, does not account for. Therefore, a new methodology must be developed for defining water quality standards and objectives in the tidal reaches of rivers. This may involve a scientifically prescribed mixing zone around the outfall, a modified sampling-based standard or a biological standard using indicator species.
#|Westenburg,-C.L. TI:  Dissolved-solids contribution to the Colorado River from public lands in southeastern Nevada, through September 1993. 1995. 30 pp. USGS Water-Resources Investigations Report: 94-4210. The Bureau of Land Management administers about 9,300 square miles of public lands in southeastern Nevada that are part of the Colorado River Basin. The U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the Bureau of Land Management, began a 5-year program in October 1988 to assess the contribution of dissolved solids to the river from those lands. About 6,200 square miles of public lands are in the Muddy River subbasin in Nevada. The estimated average dissolved-solids load contributed to the Colorado River from those lands was 28,000 tons per year from October 1988 through September 1993. Subsurface flow contributed about 86 percent (24,000 tons per year) of that load. About 730 square miles of public lands in the Las Vegas Wash subbasin contribute dissolved-solids load to the Colorado River. (About 120 square miles of public lands to not contribute to the river). The estimated average dissolved-solids load contributed to the river from those lands was about 1,300 tons per year from October 1988 through September 1993. Subsurface flow contributed almost all of that load. About 1,100 square miles of public lands are in the Virgin River subbasin in Nevada. The estimated average dissolved-solids load contributed to the Colorado River from Nevada public lands in the subbasin was 8,700 tons per year. Subsurface flow contributed almost the entire load. About 1,200 square miles of Nevada public lands are in ephemeral tributaries that drain directly to the Colorado River or its impoundments (Lake Mead and Lake Mobave). The estimated average dissolved-solids load contributed to the river from those lands was 50 tons per year from surface runoff; however, the dissolved-solids load contributed by subsurface flow was not estimated. From October 1992 to September 1993, the Colorado River carried about 6,600,000 tons of dissolved solids past a streamflow gaging station 0.3 mile downstream from Hoover Dam. In contrast, surface runoff and subsurface flow contribute an estimated average dissolved-solids load of 38,000 tons per year from public lands in southeastern Nevada to the Colorado River. Land-management practices probably would not substantially reduce this contribution.
#|Wester, S.  Analytical technology to go: Environmental testing goes into the field.  EPA J  VOL. 20, NO. 3-4, pp. 20-21, 1994.  American industry spends more than $1.5 billion a year analyzing soil and water samples to comply with EPA wastewater-discharge and soil-cleanup requirements. This represents more than 10 million samples per year. Analytical testing must be performed during every phase of hazardous-wastesite cleanup.  During the site assessment phase, a small number of samples are collected and analyzed to identify hazardous compounds.  Sites characterized as hazardous ultimately require mapping, remediation, andongoing closure monitoring.  Customarily, this analytical testing is performed in the laboratory. Highly sophisticated instruments are required because the contaminants can be hazardous at very low concentrations. Because of the complexity and sequential nature of laboratory testing, test results often take weeks to obtain and cost hundreds of dollars per sample. In 1991, North Carolina-based EnSys Environmental Products, Inc., introduced immunoassay-based analytical test systems as an alternative to traditional laboratory testing. Immunoassay technology, which has long been approved by the Food and Drug Administration as a standard method for disease detection and drug monitoring, dramatically reduces the time and cost of site assessment and remediation.
#|Westerman, P. W. N. C. S. U. R., Losordo, T. M., & Wildhaber, M. L.  1996.  Evaluation of Various Biofilters in an Intensive Recirculating Fish.  Trans Am Soc Agric Eng v39, n2, p723(5). The performances of several different types and combinations of biofilters were assessed via tests conducted in an operating, full-scale intensive recirculating fish production facility. The four tanks used in the tests had different combinations of biofilters: four upflow sand filters, a single upflow sand filter combined with two fluidized-bed sand filters, two prototype floating-bead filters, and a single upflow sand filter combined with a rotating biological contactor. The abilities of the different filters and combination systems to remove total ammonia nitrogen, nitrite nitrogen, and suspended solids from waters in the system were compared. Several other water quality parameters were also examined, including pH, alkalinity, carbon dioxide, and dissolved oxygen.
#|Western Perspectives on the Clean Water Act.  A Western Governors' Association Report Based on the Clean Water Act Roundtable: Western Perspectives. Western Governors' Association, Denver, CO.; Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC.; Western States Water Council, Salt Lake City, UT.  7 Feb 92. 52p. Proceedings of a roundtable held in Washington, DC. on February 7, 1992. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. and Western States Water Council, Salt Lake City, UT. On February 7, 1992, representatives from western governors' offices, western water managers and practitioners, and local officials met with congressional and federal agency staff for a dialogue on wetlands and water quality protection in the West with an eye towards the reauthorization of the Clean Water Act (CWA). Representatives from environmental groups and business were also in attendance. Together the group explored unique characteristics of the West which may have implications for how the West can meet the goals of the Clean Water Act. Discussion was structured around six subject areas: the quantity/quality interface, wetlands, ephemeral streams, nonpoint source pollution, water reuse and water efficiency and stormwater.
#|Westinghouse Hanford Co., Richland, WA.  200 Area TEDF effluent sampling and analysis plan.  Department of Energy, Washington, DC.  Contract Number: WHC-SD-LEF-PLN-002-REV.1, Contract AC06-87RL10930.  NTIS/DE95016342, 46p.  TD3:  This sampling analysis sets forth the effluent sampling requirements, analytical methods, statistical analyses, and reporting requirements to satisfy the State Waste Discharge Permit No. ST4502 for the Treated Effluent Disposal Facility. These requirements are listed below: Determine the variability in the effluent of all constituents for which enforcement limits, early warning values and monitoring requirements; demonstrate compliance with the permit; and verify that BAT/AKART (Best Available Technology/All know and Reasonable Treatment) source, treatment, and technology controls are being met.
#|Wharfe, J. R., Tinsley, D.  TheToxicity-Based Consent and the Wider Application of Direct Toxicity Assessment to Protect Aquatic Life.  Environ Manag  v9, n5, p526(5) Oct 95.  The inclusion of direct toxicity assessment is proposed to overcome limitations inherent in traditional water quality assessments and standards intended to protect aquatic life. Progress toward the introduction of toxicity-based consents in the UK is reported, as is the wider application of direct toxicity assessment to gauge the status of receiving waters. Direct toxicity assessment via whole sample testing forms an important component of a recommended integrated approach that also encompasses substance-specific control and biological assessments.
#|White, P A ; Rasmussen, J B ; Blaise, C.  Genotoxic substances in the St. Lawrence system II: Extracts of fish and macroinvertebrates from the St. Lawrence and Saguenay Rivers, Canada.  ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY vol. 17, no. 2, pp. 304-316, 1998. Aquatic biota frequently accumulate organic contaminants and maintain steady state tissue concentrations that are as much as 10 super(5) times higher than those in the surrounding water. Although many researchers have studied the accumulation of genotoxic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) by aquatic biota, few researchers have used bioassay to investigate the accumulation of genotoxins. In several previous studies we used the SOS Chromotest to investigate the genotoxicity of industrial effluent extracts, sediment extracts, and bivalve tissue extracts. In this study we use the SOS Chromotest to investigate the accumulation of organic genotoxins by macroinvertebrates and fish in the St. Lawrence and Saguenay rivers (Quebec, Canada). Tissue concentrations of genotoxins (expressed as mu g benzo[a]pyrene genotoxic equivalents) reveal bioconcentration factors in the 10 super(2) to 10 super(3) range. Concentrations are partially determined by lipid content (r super(2) = 0.22). Lipid-normalized values indicate that genotoxin concentrations in invertebrate tissues are significantly higher than those in fish. Fish values indicate that tissue concentrations are biodiminished, with fish at higher trophic levels having lower tissue burdens of genotoxins. The biodiminution pattern observed corresponds exceptionally well with trophic position assignments made by other authors. More contaminated sites yielded less contaminated specimens. This may be due to the induction of phase I and phase II detoxification enzymes that is likely to occur at high levels of exposure. Although the results do not support PAHs as the putative genotoxins, the results do indicate that the accumulated genotoxins have similar properties. Tissue to sediment ratios of genotoxins are similar to those observed for genotoxic PAHs, and far lower than those of more persistent organochlorines. Although we did not investigate genotoxic effects, we might expect the most dramatic effects in fish that consume contaminated macroinvertebrates.
#|Whitehouse,-P.; Crane,-M.; Redshaw,-C.J.; Turner,-C.  Aquatic toxicity tests for the control of effluent discharges in the UK the influence of test precision. ASKING THE RIGHT QUESTIONS: ECOTOXICOLOGY AND STATISTICS. Crane,-M.; Cahpman,-P.F. (eds.)  1996 pp. 155-168. ECOTOXICOLOGY vol. 5, no. 3, 1996.  The initiative by the River Purification Boards (RPBs), National Rivers Authority (NRA) and Her Majesty's Inspectorate of Pollution (HMIP) to control certain complex and toxic effluent discharges by direct toxicity assessment places great emphasis on the use of aquatic toxicity tests. Like all biological and analytical measurements, determinations of toxicity exhibit variability. When setting 'Toxicity-based Consents' (TBCs) and monitoring for compliance with such consents, it is important to understand and if possible control this variability. The implications of toxicity test variability for the way TBCs may be set and monitored are discussed; including a consideration of monitoring consents based on a single exposure concentration (limit) test and procedures involving a range of exposure concentrations (concentration-response test). We also review the precision of data arising from acute aquatic toxicity test methods which may be used for the control and monitoring of complex effluents in the UK. This includes the variability that occurs when repeated tests are carried out on different occasions within the same laboratory (repeatability) and also within different laboratories (reproducibility). Particular attention is given to acute tests using Daphnia magna, the only method for which there is a large amount of published information on the precision of toxicity data.
#|Whittier-T.R.; Rankin-E.T.  Regional Patterns in Three Biological Indicators of Stream Condition in Ohio. PB91191155XSP.  ManTech Environmental Technology, Inc., Corvallis, OR., Ohio State Environmental Protection Agency, Columbus. Corvallis Environmental Research Lab., OR. 14 Jan 91. 39p. Presented at the International Symposium on Ecological Indicators held in Ft. Lauderdale, FL. in October, 1990. Prepared in cooperation with Ohio State Environmental Protection Agency, Columbus. There is an increasing awareness of the need to supplement site-specific environmental assessments with those done at regional and global scales. In the paper, the authors review some of the issues important to broad-scale assessments. They then develop a regional-scale assessment of environmental conditions using fish assemblage data collected between 1983 and 1989 by the Ohio Environmental Protection Agency from 2100 stream sites. They use Omernik's ecoregions as the geographic framework and minimally impacted regional reference sites as definitions of regional health. The authors evaluate native fish species richness, the Modified Index of Well-being, and the Index of Biotic Integrity to characterize regional patterns in fish assemblage condition (as part of a suite of potential indicators of environmental health). For these three indicators, values at reference sites in the Huron/Erie Lake Plain(HELP) were significantly lower than in the other four ecoregions, demonstrating a lower potential for supporting fish assemblages. Reference site values in the other four regions did not differ substantially. Difficulties related to determining a reference condition in regions with extensive land use impacts are discussed. Regional indicator scores for all sites (all levels of impacts) in the HELP were the lowest, when compared to all reference site values statewide. When index values from all sites were compared to their ecoregional reference site scores, the deviation in scores of HELP's index values were comparable to or higher than all other regions. Regional index values for all sites in the Erie/Ontario Lake Plain, which is heavily industrialized, were the second lowest compared to the statewide models, and the lowest when compared to its own regional model. In the study, the simplest indicator (species richness) produced essentially the same regional-scale assessment of environmental health as did more complex indicators. These results imply that valid assessments of ecological condition may be made at regional scales using simple indicators when more complex indices are not available.
#|Wilkie Philip J; Hatzimihalis George; Koutoufides Paul; Connor Michael A.  The contribution of domestic sources to levels of key organic and inorganic pollutants in sewage: The case of Melbourne, Australia. Water Science and Technology  34 (3-4):p63-70 1996.  For the purposes of regulating discharges by industry to Melbourne's sewer network, information was needed on the concentrations of key pollutants in sewage from purely domestic sources. Sampling sites around Melbourne were identified where sewage free of trade waste contributions could be obtained. The sites chosen spanned a range of geographical areas and residential area types. Samples from these sites were analysed for a wide range of components. Similar analyses were conducted on samples from domestic water supplies. The consolidated results of these analyses are presented. The results show that the water supply contributes substantially to levels of many pollutants in domestic sewage. Comparisons with data for sewage plant influents show higher than expected inputs, from domestic sources, of many pollutants often regarded as having a mainly industrial origin.
#|Williams,-T.D.; Hutchinson,-T.H.; Roberts,-G.C.; Coleman,-C.A. The assessment of industrial effluent toxicity using aquatic microorganisms, invertebrates and fish. PROCEEDINGS OF THE SECOND EUROPEAN CONFERENCE ON ECOTOXICOLOGY. Sloof,-W.; de-Kruijf,-H. (eds.)  1993 pp. 1129-1141. Traditionally in the United Kingdom, the control of industrial effluent discharges into the aquatic environment has been based primarily upon physical and chemical parameters applied with reference to the aquatic toxicity of key effluent components (for example, ammonia and pH). Influenced by international developments, however, there is a trend in Europe to apply whole-effluent toxicity tests to monitor and control industrial effluent discharges. The relative sensitivity and utility of toxicity tests for providing acute and sublethal toxicity data on industrial effluents were therefore investigated. Toxicity tests were carried out on effluent samples taken from a variety of industrial sites that included liquid effluent discharges to freshwater and to marine/estuarine waters. Comparisons were made between the Microtox registered test and toxicity tests with fish (Oncorhynchus mykiss, Pleuronectes platessa, Scophthalmus maximus, Pimephales promelas and Cyprinodon variegatus) and a marine crustacean (Tisbe battagliai).
#|Wirt, Laurie; Gebler, Joseph B.  Aquatic biology and water quality of effluent-dominated reaches of the Santa Cruz River.  Proceedings of the Arizona Hydrological Society Annual Symposium  vol. 9  p. 201-202, 1996.  Ninth annual symposium of the Arizona Hydrological Society, Prescott, AZ, United States, Sept. 12-14, 1996.
#|Wirt,-L.  Radioactivity in the environment - a case study of the Puerco and Little Colorado River basins, Arizona, and New Mexico. USGS Water-Resources Investigations Report: 94-4192, 1994.  This report, written for the nontechnical reader, summarizes the results of a study from 1988-91 of the occurrence and transport of selected radionuclides and other chemical constituents in the Puerco and Little Colorado River basins, Arizona and New Mexico. More than two decades of uranium mining and the 1979 failure of an earthen dam containing mine tailings released high levels of radionuclides and other chemical constituents to the Puerco River, a tributary of the Little Colorado River. Releases caused public concern that ground water and streamflow downstream from mining were contaminated. Study findings show which radioactive elements are present, how these elements are distributed between water and sediment in the environment, how concentrations of radioactive elements vary naturally within basins, and how levels of radioactivity have changed since the end of mining. Although levels of radioactive elements and other trace elements measured in streamflow commonly exceed drinking-water standards, no evidence was found to indicate that the high concentrations were still related to uranium mining. Sediment radioactivity was higher at sample sites on streams that drain the eastern part of the Little Colorado River basin than that of samples from the western part. Radioactivity of suspended sediment measured in this study, therefore, represents natural conditions for the streams sampled rather than an effect of mining. Because ground water beneath the Puerco River channel is shallow, the aquifer is vulnerable to contamination. A narrow zone of ground water beneath the Puerco River containing elevated uranium concentrations was identified during the study. The highest concentrations were nearest the mines and in samples collected in the first few feet beneath the streambed. Natural radiation levels in a few areas of the underlying sedimentary aquifer not connected to the Puerco River also exceeded water quality standards. Water testing would enable those residents not using public water supplies to determine if their water is safe to use.
#|Wissmar, Robert; Halbert, Cindy; Chu, Jim; Doyle, Jim Skagit.  Wild and Scenic River: Management Status and Issues.  USDA/et al General Tech Report RM-226  p373(16) Feb 4-6, 93.  The Skagit Wild and Scenic River corridor in Washington is governed by USFS under the regulations of the Wild and Scenic Rivers Act of 1968. Portions of the river were designated as wild and scenic areas in recognition of the largest wintering population of bald eagles in the US excepting Alaska, the residence of five species of salmon and three species of anadromous trout populations, and its superb scenic characteristics. Management goals for the river address public participation and usage of the river, landscape protection, timber management, wildlife and fish habitat protection, water quality improvement, and interagency coordination. The plan must address problems such as population growth, land development, logging, declines in salmon population, conflict between habitat preservation and recreational use, and land ownership.
#|WITHERS T; ALMOND R; FRIEDMAN S; STEWART T; ALLEN R.  BENZENE RISC - AN IMMUNOASSAY FOR DETECTING 500 PARTS PER BILLION BENZENE IN WATER.  JOURNAL OF CLINICAL LIGAND ASSAY, 1995, V18, N3 (FAL), P 156-160.  Immunoassay technology has become an important tool in the assessment and remediation of hazardous materials in the environment.  Benzene, a hazardous aromatic compound noticeably soluble in water, is found primarily in petroleum sources and as a feed-stock in the manufacturing of a number of products including nylon and styrene, The United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) considers benzene a carcinogen and current regulations are set at 500 parts per billion (ppb) for wastewater discharge. Current detection methods (gas chromatography and liquid chromatography) are laborious, time consuming, and expensive. The benzene molecule is considered in a class of compounds that are incompatible with the development of an immunoassay method because of its unremarkable structure and size. By developing unique sample processing and immunochemical procedures and reagents, the technical limitations to an immunoassay for benzene have been overcome. An enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay kit that is rapid, simple, sensitive, cost effective, and used on site has been developed for the detection of 500 ppb benzene in water.
#|Wolaver,-H.; Spence,-S.; Paton,-I.  Application of two real-time toxicity tests to monitor Rocky Flats Plant water quality. EG and G Rocky Flats, Inc., Golden, CO (USA). Rocky Flats Plant SO:  1993. 26 pp. RFP-4677; CONF-9305184-1. Rocky Flats Plant (RFP) is part of the Department of Energy (DOE) nuclear weapons complex and fabricated weapon components for the DOE from 1952 to 1989. Like other industrial facilities, RFP is subject to Clean Water Act (CWA) regulations that require surface water discharge monitoring. Unlike most industrial facilities, RFP is also regulated under a Federal Facility Compliance Agreement (FFCA) that requires development of water quality monitoring on a real-time basis. A surface water toxicity monitoring program was initiated in May 1991 to address requirements concerning prevention of toxic effluent discharges. The goal of the program is to determine which methods will provide real-time monitoring, thereby enhancing water management and protection of the aquatic environment downstream. In addition to the traditional whole effluent toxicity (WET) testing required by the FFCA, two other biological instrumentation techniques that may be applicable to real-time monitoring are being implemented. These are the Microtox registered and automated respirometry. Both methods provide frequent sampling compared to WET testing and allow for more timely and frequent water quality measurement.
#|Wolfe M, & Norman D.  Effects of waterborne mercury on terrestrial wildlife at Clear Lake: Evaluation and testing of a predictive model.  Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 17 (2). 1998.  214-227. Birds and mammals exposed to waterborne mercury (Hg) and methylmercury (MeHg) were collected and/or sampled at Clear Lake, California, USA, to field test the predictive wildlife criteria model developed for the Great Lakes Water Quality Initiative (GLWQI). Tissue samples collected from sampled animals were analyzed for Hg and organochlorine residues, and for selected physiologic parameters known to be affected by Hg. All mammalian organ tissues analyzed contained less than 12 ppm total Hg, wet weight. All avian tissue samples analyzed contained less than 3 ppm total Hg, wet weight. No evidence of Hg-associated health effects was found. Tissue Hg residues were compared with water, sediment, and animal food samples to characterize bioaccumulation of mercury in the Clear Lake food web. Total Hg bioaccumulation factors for the Clear Lake site closest to the Hg source were: TL-2: 11,100; TL-3: 31,200; TL-4, 190,000. Our results support the final wildlife criterion (1,300 pg/L) and suggest that the GLWQI model, with site-specific modifications, is predictive for other Hg-bearing aquatic systems.
#|Wong S L(a); Wainwright J F; Pimenta J.  Quantification of total and metal toxicity in wastewater using algal bioassays.  Aquatic Toxicology (Amsterdam)  31 (1):p57-75 1995.  Based on the fact that EDTA complexes free metal ions, a method combining algal assays, electron microscopy and EDX-ray microanalysis was developed to determine total and metal toxicity in full strength effluent water. By adding a sufficient amount of EDTA into a test water to bind the free metal ions, metal and 'organic' toxicities could be differentiated in assays, as observed from tests with two industrial wastewaters and a solution containing a mixture of Cu, Zn and Hyamine.  Metal toxicity could be verified by the presence of free metal ions in the water and by excess metals in the polyphosphate bodies of affected algal cells where altered chloroplasts were observed. Damage to the thylakoidal membranes in the chloroplast was characteristic of metal toxicity in Chlorella cells.
#|Wong S L;; Nakamoto L; Wainwright J F.  Detection of toxic organometallic complexes in wastewaters using algal assays.  Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology  32 (4):p 358-366 1997.  Chlorella (a unicellular green alga) and Cladophora (a filamentous alga) were used in algal assays to identify the presence and toxicity of organometallic complexes in four industrial wastewaters.  Toxicities of inorganic Pb and organometallic compounds (trimethyl, tetramethyl and tetraethyl leads, cacodylic acid and Cu-picolinate) were examined, using algal cells grown in 10% BBM solution. Inorganic Pb and organometallic compounds altered the fine structure of Chlorella cells in a distinguishable manner. X-ray microanalysis revealed that organometallic compounds accumulated in the neutral lipids of Cladophora cells. By applying the above techniques to the found to contain organometallic complexes. Wastewater from a wastewater assays, two of the four wastewaters tested were chemical company contained only traces of organo-Cu, but one mining effluent contained significant quantities of organo-Cu and organo-Pb, and traces of organo-Cr and organo-T1 (thallium). These studies suggest that X-ray microanalysis of algae may be a useful tool in identifying aquatic systems contaminated with metals and organometallic compounds.
#|WONG SL; WAINWRIGHT JF; NAKAMOTO L.  MONITORING TOXICITY IN FOUR WASTEWATERS IN THE BAY OF QUINTE, LAKE ONTARIO.  JOURNAL OF GREAT LAKES RESEARCH, 1995, V21, N3, P340-352.  In 1993, as part of the Bay of Quinte Remedial Action plan program, the toxicity of four wastewater discharges (two from municipal STPs, one from a chemical company, and one from a pulp and paper company) was monitored in the Bay of Quinte, Lake Ontario. Sequential dilutions of the best effluents were utilized in algal assays to estimate effluent toxicity at 100% effluent concentration. The toxicity estimated was expressed as mu M/L Cu equivalents. Among the four discharges tested the paper processing effluent was the most toxic at about 100 times the sensitive level (the concentration above which delicate algal and invertebrate species would not survive). STP-I wastewater was not toxic. The toxicity of both the chemical company and STP-II wastewaters fluctuated in and out of the sensitive zone.  Chlorella cells harvested after six days exposure to the industrial wastewaters sustained fine structural damage caused by organic toxicants, while those incubated with municipal STP wastewaters exhibited damage due to metals. in the absence of organic toxicity in STP-II wastewater, a negative correlation between P concentration and metal toxicity was obtained (r(2) = 0.99).
#|Wood, C M ; Hogstrand, C ; Galvez, F ; Munger, R S.  The physiology of waterborne silver toxicity in freshwater rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) 2. The effects of silver thiosulfate.  AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY vol. 35, no. 2, pp. 111-125, 1996.  The physiological responses of adult rainbow trout to a high level (30000 mu g l-1) of waterborne silver complexed by thiosulfate [Ag(S2O3)n-], as occurs in photoprocessing effluent, were compared with the responses to a low level of ionic Ag+ (10 mu g l-1 as AgNO3).  Ag(S2O3)n- was synthesized by combining one mole part AgCl with four mole parts of Na2S2O3 responses to an equivalent level of Na2S2O3 alone (1.11 mM) were examined as a control. Under flow-through conditions in moderately hard freshwater, 97% occurred as Ag(S2O3)23-, 3% as AgS2O3-, and a negligible fraction as ionic Ag+ (<0.003 mu g l-1). Whereas 10 mu g l-1 Ag (as AgNO3) caused a variety of internal disturbances related to losses of plasma Na+ and Cl-, 3000-fold greater Ag(S2O3)n- had very minor effects - a moderate, transient metabolic alkalosis and an apparent expansion of plasma volume. Plasma glucose declined slightly, but this also occurred in Na2S2O3 controls. Plasma Na+, Cl-, Ca2+, K+, lactate, arterial blood and , and hematology were essentially unaffected. Nevertheless, by Day 6, total gill Ag was 3-fold greater than during AgNO3 exposure, while plasma Ag was 3-4 times greater (stabilized by Day 2). There was also two-fold greater Ag accumulation in the liver than during AgNO3 exposure, as well as accumulation in kidney, and an induction of metallothionein in liver, gills, and kidney. We conclude that acute toxic effects of waterborne silver are caused by ionic Ag+ interacting with key functions at the gill surface and not by internal Ag accumulation. Even very high levels of waterborne silver are relatively benign when complexed by thiosulfate.
#|Woodfine, D. G., & Havas, M. T. 1996.  Pathways of Chemical Recovery in Acidified, Metal-Contaminated Lakes.  Water Air Soil Pollut v85, n2, p797(7). The observed changes in Baby Lake and Alice Lake in the vicinity of the Sudbury, ON, Canada, smelters were compared to theoretical pathways of recovery. The water quality of the two lakes began to recover after the closure of a smelter and stricter regulations for atmospheric pollutants. Three theoretical models of recovery were examined: linear, exponential, and logistic. Results indicated that the change in hydrogen ion did not follow the predicted logistic curve for the two lakes, while the changes in the concentrations of nickel and copper followed an exponential loss curve predicted for non-essential elements.
#|Woodling, J D.  The South Platte River from Denver to Nebraska: Monitoring water quality is not a simple process.  INTEGRATED WATERSHED MANAGEMENT IN THE SOUTH PLATTE BASIN: STATUS AND PRACTICAL IMPLEMENTATION. PROCEEDINGS OF THE 1994 SOUTH PLATTE FORUM, OCTOBER 26-27, 1994, GREELEY, COLORADO.  Klein, K C ; Williams, D J  (eds ).  FORM. SER. COLORADO WATER RESOUR. RES. INST. no. 77 pp. 46-47, 1994.  An increasing awareness has developed over the last two decades regarding the importance of water in the South Platte Basin downstream of the Denver metropolitan area. Presently a variety of governmental and private entities are sampling various reaches of the South Platte in the eastern plains portion of Colorado. When the Colorado Division of Wildlife (DOW) instituted an intensive fish sampling program in this area a decision was made to obtain water quality data on a year round basis at many of the mainstem South Platte fish sampling sites. Instead of developing yet another individual sampling program the DOW contacted other entities and developed a multi-group, cooperative program that began operation in December of 1993. By the early summer of 1994 the Colorado State Parks Department, the DOW, and nine schools from the Rivers of Colorado Watch Network began collecting samples at 14 sites from Denver to Julesburg on a predetermined schedule twice a month. All sites are sampled on the same day. Flow data from the Colorado State Engineer's Water Talk Network is obtained the day of sampling at five locations by the schools. Samples are retrieved by the DOW on the day of sampling to allow for analysis of nitrate, which has a 24 hour holding time. The Denver Metro Wastewater Reclemation District and the Colorado Water Quality Control Division (319 nonpoint program) analyze the samples for nitrate and total phosphorus, respectively. All involved are benefitting. The schools can compare their results with the determinations of the Denver based laboratories. The DOW is obtaining information that will describe the year round chemical environment of the river's fish community. Lastly, a data base is being developed that any person or entity can utilize. Initial observations show that the South Platte is actually several rivers as it flows from Denver to Nebraska. Most Colorado rivers can be compared to a continuum as they follow downstream. Dissolved salts increase, and, downstream of a point source, a contaminant may increase only to be diluted further downstream. Mainstem South Platte flow volumes change dramatically due to domestic wastewater effluents entering the river, agriculture diversions and irrigation, and subsurface return flows. As a result, various chemical constituents may actually decrease in a downstream direction during irrigation season only to dramatically increase further downstream. Temporally changing nitrate and ammonia concentrations at several sites indicate the river receives continual nitrogen loading (nutrient enrichment) from Denver to Nebraska.
#|Woolschlager, J ; Rittmann, B E.  Evaluating what is measured by BDOC and AOC tests? REVUE DES SCIENCES DE L'EAU vol. 8, no. 3, pp. 371-385, 1995.  Batch type biodegradable organic material (BOM) tests are modeled using basic kinetic and stoichiometric principles. The modeling results reveal that for biodegradable dissolved organic carbon (BDOC) tests, the change in dissolved organic carbon (DOC) is not equal to BOM. The formation of soluble microbial products (SMP) and the degradation kinetics of the BOM must be considered to estimate the true BOM from BDOC results. For assimilable organic carbon (AOC) tests, using a calibration standard based on an easy to degrade substrate, such as acetate, does not necessarily give an accurate indication of the true BOM. The kinetics of BOM degradation must be estimated before an AOC test can be used to interpret the true BOM in a sample. The inoculum density can also influence the results of AOC and BDOC tests.  When the BOm is hard to degrade, using a low density test can underestimate amount of BDOC in a sample.
#|Wotton, C. L., & Lence, B. J. (1995). Water quality management of ammonia under uncertainty.  1995.  Proc 22 Annu Conf Integr Water Res Plan 21 Century.  ASCE. p 456-459. This paper investigates the importance of uncertain input parameters for ammonia management models and different ambient ammonia criteria. The approach uses a modified Generalized Sensitivity Analysis to determine the significance of each uncertain parameter in a simulation and optimization model. The analysis is demonstrated for the management of ammonia on the White River in Washington State. Results indicate that, for this case study, the river pH and temperature, the nitrification rate, and the midstream flow are the most important parameters under the current recommended criterion. The significance of the nitrification rate and the upstream flow are shown to be dependent on the value of the ammonia criterion.
#|Wright RG, Murray MP, Merrill T.  Ecoregions as a level of ecological analysis.  BIOLOGICAL CONSERVATION 86: (2) 207-213 NOV 1998.  There have been many attempts to classify geographic areas into zones of similar characteristics. Recent focus has been on ecoregions. We examined how well the boundaries of the most commonly used ecoregion classifications for the US matched the boundaries of existing vegetationcover mapped at three levels of classification, fine, mid- and coarse scale. We analyzed ecoregionsin Idaho, Oregon and Washington. The results were similar among the two ecoregion classifications. For both ecoregion delineations and all three vegetation classifications, the patterns of existing vegetation did not correspond well with the patterns of ecoregions. Most vegetation types had a small proportion of their total area in a given ecoregion. There was also no dominance by one or more vegetation types in any ecoregion and contrary to our hypothesis, the level of congruence of vegetation patterns with ecoregion boundaries decreased as the level of classification became more general. The implications of these findings on the use of ecoregions as a planning tool and in the development of land conservation efforts are discussed.
#|Xie, Y., Hu, X., Biswas, N., & Bewtra, J. K.  1994.  River Network Model and Parameter Estimation.  Int J Environ Stud v46, n2-3, p103(12). Within the Beijing-Tianjin region of China, several streams and canals have become polluted by organic inputs from domestic and industrial sources. A series of water-quality models was developed for the principal pollutants, including COD, DO, BOD, TOC, TOD, and ammonia-nitrogen, so that a river network model could be formulated for the region. The water-quality models were developed based on pollutant load and water-quality data. The river network model, which is presented, was then developed for describing the distribution of the pollutants and for implementing water-quality management schemes on a regional scale. The model parameters-BOD decay rate, re-aeration rate, nitrification rate, and the DO constant rate for photosynthesis-were estimated using the least-squares and the network-grid methods. Using the model, the concentration of pollutants can be calculated at any point within the river system.
#|Yamazaki, M ; Tanizaki, Y ; Shimokawa, T.  Silver and other trace elements in a freshwater fish, Carasius auratus langsdorfii, from the Asakawa River in Tokyo, Japan.  ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION vol. 94, no. 1, pp. 83-90, 1996.  The concentrations of silver (Ag) in a typical freshwater fish in Japan, Carasius auratus langsdorfii, and some other species have been determined to examine the Ag-contamination of fish and to specify the Ag accumulating species and part. They were dissected roughly into four parts, and analyzed by an instrumental neutron activation analysis. It was found that Ag was accumulated in the samples from the Asakawa River, and that the Ag concentration in the entrails of C. auratus langsdorfii reached 12 mu g/g. The analysis of a C. auratus langsdorfii, which was dissected into 13 individual organs, showed that the Ag was accumulated highly in the liver, followed by the gallbladder and kidney. The inter-species and inter-part distributions of other trace elements have also been studied.
#|Yan, N.D.; Welsh, P.G.; Lin, H.; Taylor, D.J.; Filion, J. M.  Demographic and genetic evidence of the long-term recovery of Daphnia galeata mendotae (Crustacea: Daphniidae) in Sudbury lakes following additions of base: The role of metal toxicity.  CAN. J. FISH. AQUAT. SCI.  vol. 53, no. 6, pp. 1328-1344  (1996).  Twenty-year records of changes in abundance of Daphnia galeata mendotae are presented for Middle and Hannah lakes, two metal-contaminated lakes near Sudbury, Ontario, whose acidity was neutralized by additions of base in the mid-1970s. A comparison of allozyme frequencies and abundances of D. g. mendotae in Middle, Hannah, and numerous reference populations indicates that the taxon has fully recovered at both the population and genetic levels of analysis. However, the timing and pace of recovery of D. g. mendotae differed between the two Sudbury lakes. Two 21-day bioassays were conducted to examine the survival and brood production of D. g. mendotae in five treatments simulating 18 years of changes in Cu, Ni, and Cd concentrations in the lakes. The bioassay indicated that metal concentrations, i.e., habitat quality, regulated the pace of recovery of this important zooplankton taxon in the study lakes.
#|Ye W, Bates BC, Viney NR, Sivapalan M, Jakeman AJ.  Performance of conceptual rainfall-runoff models in low-yielding ephemeral catchments.  WATER RESOURCES RESEARCH 33: (1) 153-166 JAN 1997.  Low-yielding catchments with ephemeral streams involve highly nonlinear relationships between rainfall and runoff, and there is much less documentation and appreciation of the ability to predict stream flow in these very difficult cases than in humid catchments. The predictions of three conceptual rainfall-runoff models are assessed in three low-yielding, emphemeral streams over a 10-year period. The models are a simple conceptual model, Generalized Surface inFiltration Baseflow (GSFB; eight parameters), a hybrid metric/conceptual model, Identification of Hydrographs and Components from Rainfall, Evaporation and Streamflow data (IHACRES; six parameters), and a complex conceptual model, the Large Scale Catchment Model (LASCAM 22 parameters). The Salmon (0.82 km(2)), Stones (15 km(2)), and Canning (517 km) catchments in Western Australia were selected for their range of sizes and low runoff yields (1.6-12.2% of rainfall). Their behavior is representative of a large part of Australia and semiarid regions, where antecedent conditions are critical determinants of streamflow response to rainfall. Such catchments provide a stern test of the capability of conceptual models. Five-year calibration and validation performances were assessed with a range of statistics. The models were run daily but performance was assessed on both a daily and monthly basis by aggregating daily model streamflows and observations up to monthly. The models performed well, particularly in the monthly case where often more than 90% of the variance of observed streamflow was explained in simulation on independent periods. However, while the simple conceptual model is adequate for monthly time periods, the daily simulation results indicate that a slightly more complex model (the hybrid model or the complex conceptual model) is required for daily predictions in these dry catchments. The model simulation results extend the following notion of Jakeman and Hornberger [1993] from humid to semiarid ephemeral catchments: that a model of about six parameters, albeit in an appropriate model structure, is sufficient to characterize the information in rainfall-discharge time series over a wide range of catchment sizes. Models of such modest complexity also predict runoff with good accuracy outside calibration periods, even in ephemeral, low-yielding catchments. The simulation results highlight the critical importance of the deep groundwater and antecedent moisture conditions on stream yields in ephemeral catchments and point to the desirability of accounting for these factors in arid-zone modeling.
#|Yu, Y.-S., Zou, S., & Whittemore, D.  1993.  Non-Parametric Trend Analysis of Water Quality Data of Rivers in Kansas.  J Hydrol v150, n1, p61(20). Four different non-parametric trend tests-the Mann-Kendall, seasonal Kendall, Sen's T, and Van Belle and Hughes tests-were used to detect linear trends in water quality of the Arkansas, Verdigris, Neosho, and Walnut Rivers in Kansas. Input data were comprised of 17 parameters measured over the period 1975-89. The water-quality parameters considered were: specific conductance, pH, discharge, temperature, sulfate, chloride, total phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, DO, ammonia plus organic nitrogen, total hardness, dissolved solids, suspended sediment, alkalinity, potassium, and sodium. Each trend test is described. While the trends of a given constituent varied from station to station, a general downward trend was seen for specific conductance, dissolved solids, Ca, total hardness, Na, K, alkalinity, sulfate, chloride, total P, NH4 + organic N, and suspended sediment. All relevant data are tabulated.
#|Zacharewski, T R ; Berhane, K ; Gillesby, B E ; Burnison, B K.  Detection of estrogen- and dioxin-like activity in pulp and paper mill black liquor and effluent using in vitro recombinant receptor/reporter gene assays.  ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY vol. 29, no. 8, pp. 2140-2146, 1995.  In vitro recombinant receptor/reporter gene assays were used to examine pulp and paper mill black liquor and effluent for estrogenic, dioxin-like, and antiestrogenic activities. Using MCF-7 cells transiently transfected with a Gal4-estrogen receptor chimeric construct (Gal4-HEGO) and a Gal4-regulated luciferase reporter gene (17m5-G-Luc), it was estimated that black liquor contains 4 plus or minus 2 ppb "estrogen equivalents", while negligible estrogenic activity was observed in a methanol-extracted pulp and paper mill effluent fraction (MF). A dioxin response element (DRE)-regulated luciferase reporter gene (pGudLuc1.1) transiently transfected into Hepa1c1c7 wild-type cells exhibited a dose-dependent increase in luciferase activity following treatment with 2,3,7,8-tetrachloro-dibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD), black liquor, and MF.  Based on the dose-response curves, black liquor and MF contain 10 plus or minus 4 ppb and 20 plus or minus 6 ppt "TCDD equivalents", respectively. Moreover, MF exhibited significant AhR-mediated antiestrogenic activity. These results demonst rate the utility of these bioassays and suggest that the effects observed in fish exposed to pulp and paper mill effluent may be due to unidentified ER and AhR ligands not detected by conventional chemical analysis due to the lack of appropriate standards.
#|Zachritz-W.H.; Morrow-J. Assessment of Microtox(trademark) as a biomonitoring tool for whole effluent testing for Los Alamos National Laboratory. Los Alamos National Lab., NM. New Mexico State Univ., Las Cruces, NM (United States).  Department of Energy, Washington, DC.  13 Jun 94. 49p. Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL) has special discharge problems relating to potential radioactive content of the effluent discharge waters. Because of this all testing must be performed on-site and results must be rapidly determined. There is a need to examine the development of a real-time procedure for effluent biomonitoring to met these site limitations. The Microtox(trademark) unit for toxicity testing is a microbially-based test system that shows great promise to be used for WET testing. The overall goal of this study is to develop an acceptable protocol for operational biomonitoring using the Microtox (trademark) toxicity test for LANL. The specific objectives include: development of an appropriate toxicity testing protocol using the Microtox(trademark) toxicity test for whole effluent toxicity testing and evaluation of the protocol based on factors such as sensitivity, response time, cost of analysis, and simplicity of operation.
#|Zagorc-Koncan, Jana, Cotman, Magda.  Impact Assessment of Industrial and Municipal Effluents on Surface Water-a Cases Study.  Water Sci Technol  v34, n7-8, p141(5) 1996.  An integrated approach, including chemical and toxicological characterizations, was used to examine the impact of wastewater effluents on a receiving water in Slovenia. River water samples, as well as samples of effluents from biological and industrial wastewater-treatment plants, were analyzed. The treated effluents were found to contain relatively high concentrations of ammonia, BOD, and zinc, while the river-water quality was found to change slightly as a result of the discharges, particularly in terms of higher concentrations of organic nitrogen, phosphorus, and Zn downstream. However, the effluents were found to have no significant toxic effects.
#|Zampella, R. A.  1994.  Characterization of Surface Water Quality Along a Watershed Disturbance.  Water Resour Bull v30, n4, p605(7). Summary statistics were compiled for each of the 14 water-quality monitoring stations located on New Jersey Pinelands streams to develop a water-quality gradient related to the amount of watershed disturbance. The statistics included values for specific conductance, pH, dissolved calcium, dissolved magnesium, total nitrite plus nitrate-nitrogen, total ammonia-N, and total phosphorus. Land-use profiles were also prepared to develop a generalized watershed disturbance gradient. Combining the data resulted in a water-quality gradient of increasing water-quality values with increasing land-use intensity and wastewater flow. A high positive correlation was observed for all seven water-quality variables. Each water-quality variable value is discussed to illustrate the development of water-quality programs that reflect both the differences in watershed characteristics and the range of land uses allowed in the region.
#|Zaranyika M F; Mukono T T; Jayatissa N; Dube M T.  Effect of seepage from a gold mine slime dam on the trace heavy metal levels of a nearby receiving stream and dam in Zimbabwe.  Journal of Environmental Science and Health Part A Environmental Science and Engineering & Toxic and Hazardous Substance Control  32 (8):p 2155-2168 1997.  The effect of seepage from a gold mine slime dam on the levels of trace heavy metals in a nearby receiving stream and dam were studied between 1993 and 1995. The heavy metals studied include Cd, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Pb, Ag, Cu, Zn and Cr. The major cations Na+, K+, Ca-2+, Mg-2+, the SO-4-2- anion, pH, alkalinity, and hardness were also determined. The results obtained confirm that seepage from the slime dam has a very strong influence on the levels of dissolved trace heavy metals in the stream and dam.
#|Zeman, L. J., & Slaymaker, H. O. (1993).  Primary metals and criteria for water use in the Columbia River, British Columbia.  Management of Irrigation and Drainage Systems : Integrated Perspectives Manage Irrig Drain Syst Integr Perspect 1993. Publ by ASCE, New York, NY, USA, BC. p 351-357. We assessed primarily concentrations of lead, cadmium, copper, zinc and water hardness in the Columbia River between Birchbank and Waneta. Water quality in this reach of the river is affected by discharges from municipal treatment plants and particularly Cominco Limited's lead-zinc smelter and fertilizer complex. Special emphasis was given to the comparison of lead concentrations with hardness-related Canadian Water Quality Guidelines, and the United States Environmental Protection Agency criteria recommended for the protection of aquatic life.
#|ZHANG T, JIN HJ, & ZHU HL. (1996). QUALITY CRITERIA OF ACRYLONITRILE FOR THE PROTECTION OF AQUATIC LIFE IN CHINA.  CHEMOSPHERE, V32, N10, P2083-2093. Freshwater quality criteria of acrylonitrile were developed on the basis of the features of the aquatic biota in China, and with reference to U.S.EPA's guidelines. Acute tests were performed on each of eight different domestic species to determine 48h-EC(50)/96h-EC(50) (or 96h-LC(50)) values for acrylonitrile. 21d survival-reproduction test with Daphnia magna, 28d early life stage test with Bufo bufo gargarizans and 96h growth inhibition test with Lemna minor were also conducted to estimate lower chronic limit/upper chronic limit values. The final acute value, the. final chronic value and the final plant value of acrylonitrile was 3.842 mg/L, 0.4827 mg/L and 8.803 mg/L respectively. A criterion maximum concentration (1.921 mg/L) and a criterion continuous concentration (0.4827 mg/L) were derived. The results of this study may provide useful data to derive national WQC for acrylonitrile as well as the procedures of deriving WQC for other chemicals based on aquatic biota in China.
#|Zuiderveen J A. Birge W J.  The relationship between chronic values in toxicity tests with Ceriodaphnia dubia.  Dwyer, F. J., T. R. Doane and M. L. Hinman (Ed.). ASTM STP, 1317. Environmental toxicology and risk assessment: Modeling and risk assessment (Sixth Volume); Sixth Symposium on Environmental Toxicology and Risk Assessment, Orlando, Florida, USA, April 15-18, 1996. vii+564p. 551-556. ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials): Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA. ISBN 0-8031-2474-0. 1997.